Prologue: A First-Year Writing Journal
Volume 6 Article 10
2014
H.G. Wells’ e Time Machine: Beyond Science
and Fiction
Allie Vugrincic
Denison University
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Article 10.
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43
H.G. Wells’ The Time Machine: Beyond Science and Fiction
By Allie Vugrincic
A weary, red sun rises over a distant planet—or perhaps our own planet, thousands of
years in the future—as the new mankind breathes in the crystalline air of their pristine society. A
rocket burns a pathway against a background of stars. Science challenges the human mind’s
potential ability to travel in time and space. There is something utterly captivating in an idea that
can inspire the reader to look beyond themselves into a universe overflowing with fantastic or
horrific possibilities—possibilities that seem just barely beyond the longing grasp of humanity.
This is the essence of the literary genre of science fiction, a genre defined by its exploration of
the seemingly impossible via the expansion of modern technology. Science fiction is willing to
go beyond the boundaries of time and space to transport readers into the distant future, to new
planets, and even to alternate realities.
The genre was introduced in the mid-1600s with the fantasy work The Blazing World by
Margret Cavendish and born in its modern form in 1818 with the publication of Mary Shelley’s
Frankenstein. As a social force, it draws much of its power from its tendency to become “a
mirror of common opinion” in popular realms of critical thought, and the ability to expand those
commonly held ideas into something magnificent and enduring.
51
It is also a genre that by its
very nature is heavily influenced by the time period from which it came: the nineteenth century,
a time of scientific discovery and expanding technology, where Social Darwinism was an
emerging notion and Romanticism a lingering ideal. These concepts came together and
manifested themselves in literary works that strove to question the limits of human ingenuity and
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
51
!Robert!H.!West,!“Science!Fiction!and!Its!Ideas”!The$Georgia$Review$15,!no.!3!(Octobe r!1 ,! !
!!!!!!!!!!1961):!278.!
!!Carl!D.!Malmgren,!Worlds!Apart:!Narratology!of!Science!Fiction!(Indianapolis,!Indiana!!
!!!!!!!!!University!Press!1991),!2.!
44
social structure. No preceding genre so beautifully combined the ethical and aesthetic to achieve
a social commentary on the increasing possibilities for good and evil.
52
The complex social
atmosphere in which science fiction developed allowed for a diverse range of topics to be
explored—from the moral qualms of technology to the prospects of exploration. In an age of
progress where ideas were moving faster than they ever had before, change became a constant
rule.
53
Science fiction, as a “form of enlightened social critique” likewise adopted, or rather was
founded upon, this same view.
54
One of the foremost literary masters of nineteenth century science fiction, Herbert
George Wells, saw the unprecedented rate of change as the defining characteristic of the
nineteenth century. He wrote several works dealing with said change, including his 1901 non-
fiction, Anticipations of the Reaction of Mechanical and Scientific Progress upon Human Life
and Thought.
55
Wells, known for being a man “not pleased with the world he lived in,” did not
leave his fascination with the future of mankind exclusively in non-fiction.
56
Instead, Wells used
his knowledge of nineteenth century science to enhance his fictional glimpse at the fate of
mankind in his work The Time Machine. Written in 1895, The Time Machine showcases Wells’s
masterful marriage of the Romantic ideals of his Victorian England to the popular debates of
scientific and human change. These conditions culminate in a work that critiques social behavior
and humanity.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
52
!Paul!K.!Alkon,!Science$Fiction$Before$1900:$Imagination$Discovers$Technology!(New !Yo rk,!!
!!!!!!!!Twayne!Publishers,!1994),!xi.!
53
!Malmgren,!Worlds$Apart:$Narratology$of$Science$Fiction,!5.!
54
!Peter!Y.!Paik,!From$Utopia$to$Apocalypse:$Science$Fiction$and$the$Politics$of$Catastrophe!!
!!!!!!!!!!Minneapolis,!University!of!Minnesota!Press,!2010),!3.!!
55
!Alkon,!Science$Fiction$Before$1900:$Imagination$Discovers$Technology,!15.!
56
!J.!Kagarlitski,!The$Life$and$Thought$of$H.$G.$Wells,!translated!by!Moura!Budberg!(New!York:!!
!!!!!!!!!Barnes&Nobles,!1966),!xi.!
45
A Genre of Social Critique
Wells favored the use of fiction as an avenue for political and social commentary. He
believed the duty of a fiction author was “to be the social mediator” and “instrument of self-
examination” for the masses.
57
Science fiction, a genre partially founded by Wells, allowed him
to pose questions regarding the social status quo to an emerging audience of readers who
commonly lacked the ability to understand life outside of their experience. With fiction, Wells
was able to present these complex and sometimes abstract ideas to audiences in a way which was
easy to grasp.
58
Science fiction especially proved to be useful in assessing such intellectual
aspects of life, as science validated fiction and gave educated audiences a rational vehicle for
stories of the impossible.
59
Wells takes readers to the year 802,701; a time long past the height of human society,
when man has devolved and split into two starkly different races—the beautiful and helpless
Eloi, and the horrifying ape-like Morlocks. These two descendants of man become a vehicle for
Wells’s sermon on the progression of humanity, in which he lays out problems of his time with
the fatalism of science fiction.
60
Fatalism here refers to the inescapable progression of the world
due to humans and nature. This idea becomes a theme that grows throughout the journey of
Wells’s protagonist, the Time Traveler. Though never the foreground of critique, Well’s does
invite the reader to consider fate as a fixed entity, and perhaps even to question if it can be
changed.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
57
!Alkon,!Science!Fiction!Before!1900:!Imagination!Discovers!Technology,!8.!
!“Mr.!H.!G.!Wells!on!Novels.”!The$Times$of$India!(1861_Current).!February!14,!1912,!sec.!!
http://0search.proquest.com.dewey2.library.denison.edu/hnptimesofindia/docview/231293091/citation/
! 1424F79B85948E6CFB/9?accountid=10474.!
58
!Kagarlitski,!The$Life$and$Thought$of$H.$G.$Wells,!Budberg!trans la tio n ,!21.!
59
!Alkon,$Science$Fiction$Before$1900:$Imagination$Discovers$Technology,!49!
60
!West,!“Science!Fiction!and!Its!Ideas”:!278.!
46
More prevalently, however, Wells’s Time Machine deals with newly developed social
classes that divided his nineteenth century society. Upon his first encounter with the Eloi, “very
beautiful and graceful creature[s],” the Time Traveler describes the being’s frail beauty.
61
Slight
in stature—no more than four feet tall—and “clad in a purple tunic” the first Eloi the Time
Traveler meets is classified as “the more beautiful kind of consumptive” creating an immediate
association with luxury.
62
The creature’s beauty, as well as the later observed “peculiarities in
their Dresden-china type of prettiness” is attributed to an aristocratic lineage.
63
This parallel to
the upper-class of Wells’s time encourages one to contemplate the class system; the idea of the
“consumptive” seems to chide the bourgeoisie for their extravagance, as the image of purple
robes invokes memories of ancient kings.
The Eloi alone, however, are not enough to truly provide a criticism of social structure; it
takes the appearance of the second, more animalistic descendant of man to create a critique of
the Victorian class system. The Morlocks, a subterranean species contrast the Eloi’s
representation of the upper class by standing in for the working class in Wells’s year 802,701.
The Time Traveler characterizes the Morlocks much like animals: “it was a dull white, and had
strange large grayish-red eyes; also [there was] flaxen hair on its head and down its back.”
64
The
Time Traveler aligns the Morlocks’ pale skin and lack of beauty with their apparent decent from
the working class, who, the Time Traveler supposes, were forced underground so that the upper
world could remain free of the eyesores of industry. The Morlocks, like their proletariat
ancestors, toil to create the products “necessary to the comfort of the daylight race.”
65
It is in this
way that Wells, via his Time Traveler, presents a tale of a complete social schism that resulted in
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
61
!H.!G.!Wells,!The$Time$Machine!(New!York:!Bantam!Cla ssics,!20 03 ),!26.!
62
!Ibid.!
63
!Ibid,!28.!
64
!Ibid,!55.!
65
!Ibid,!57.!
47
the development of two completely different species: “The gradual widening” of the gap
between laborers and capitalists is declared the “key to the whole position,” reinforcing the
fatalism of the novel by suggesting this breakdown is inevitable if the class system remains in
place.
66
This eventuality is an unavoidable consequence of human nature; the “real aristocracy,”
the Time Traveler witnesses is a “logical conclusion of the industrial system” of the nineteenth
century.
67
The inescapable fate of mankind to evolve in such a way brings into focus a second
nineteenth century issue that Wells eagerly dissects through the juxtaposition of the Morlocks
and the Eloi: Social Darwinism. This is a concept that can be traced back to the late 1870s and
would have been a highly discussed topic during Wells’s lifetime.
68
It is no surprise, then, that
distinct references to Darwin’s evolutionary theory appear in The Time Machine. Wells applies
Darwinian Theory to man, both as a social creature and as an animal with the basic ability to
adapt. With a scientific perspective, Wells’s Time Traveler considers the aspects of evolution
that would have resulted in the human species’ degeneration and split into two humanoid
remnants.
The frailty of the Eloi is easily attributed to an adaptation to a lifestyle free of conflict,
disease, and danger. As daily life for the Eloi no longer requires the strength to overcome
struggles, those who were once considered weak become equal with the strong and “are indeed
no longer weak.”
69
The Eloi are also characterized as unintelligent, though well-meaning,
beings. The Time Traveler remarks on their carefree attitude and considers their disinterest in
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
66
!Ibid,!58.!
67
!Ibid,!59.!
68
!Paul!Crook,!“Social!Darwinism:!The!Concept.”!History$of$European$Ideas!22,!no.!4!(July!1996):!!
!!!!!!!!!261.!
69
!Wells,!The$Time$Machine,!39.!
48
him a mark of lower intellect.
70
The Time Traveler is taken aback when he is asked by an Eloi if
he and his time machine came from a thunderstorm, “a question that showed him to be on the
intellectual level of our five-year-old children.”
71
The Eloi’s intelligence, the Time Traveler
reasons, is diminished because they are not plagued with solving problems. Wells harkens to
scientific Darwinism as the Time Traveler remarks on the necessity of change for the existence
of intellect:
“It is a law of nature that we overlook, that intellectual versatility is the compensation for
change, danger, and trouble. An animal perfectly in harmony with its environment is a
perfect mechanism. Nature never appealed to intelligence until habit and instinct are
useless. There is no intelligence where there is no change and no need of change. Only
those animals partake of intelligence that have to meet a huge variety of needs and
dangers.”
72
In the wake of a perfect harmony with nature, idleness becomes the Eloi’s poison, causing the
downfall of humanity from the inquisitive exploration of the nineteenth century to child’s play in
802,701. The Eloi have no need for intelligence, so it is lost.
The Time Traveler invokes social Darwinism when he suggests that this process of
degeneration due to lack of stimulant was a “logical consequence” of an artificial environment of
stability. Wells’s argument becomes multilayered when he also calls attention to the “civilising
mission” which may refer to civilization within Europe, but certainly is reminiscent to the
“mission” of imperialism, which was at its height in the late nineteenth century:
73
Well’s Time
Traveler remarks on the “odd consequence of the social effort in which we are at present
engaged,” where the social effort is the attempted civilizing of peoples considered to be brutish
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
70
!Ibid,!33.!
71
!Ibid,!29.!
72
!Ibid,!97.!!
73
!Robin!J.!Winks!and!Joan!Neuberger,!Europe$and$the$Making$of$Modernity!(New !Y ork :!Ox ford ,!200 5),!25 7.!
49
and the consequence, strangely enough, is the creation of a feeble society.
74
This brief reference
to imperialism may be an extension of Wells’s social criticism beyond the physical boundaries of
Europe to condemn the disruption of the natural evolution of society caused by Europeans
interactions with peoples of “less advanced” areas. Indeed, this would be in line with his
prediction of humanity’s over-civilization. It is likely Wells simply saw this as an opportunity to
enhance his overall theory about the progression of society. Wells also touches on his recurring
theme of fatalism with the remark that “security sets a premium on feebleness” and such a secure
society will inevitably degrade intellectually and physically.
75
On the other side of the Wells’s new spectrum of humanity, the Morlocks stand not
feeble, but animalistic. Already mentioned was the Time Traveler’s supposition that the
Morlocks became subterranean after industry was sent below ground. Naturally the Morlocks
developed pale skin and the climbing skills required to ascend and descend the long ladders that
link them to the surface. Furthering the theme of evolution to adapt to the environment, the
Morlocks have developed an ability to see in the dark and an extreme aversion to sunlight as a
result of their underground existence. The Morlocks, otherwise slighted by this evolutionary
process, are endowed with one remnant of human ingenuity that their aboveground relatives
lack: due to their continued contact with machinery, the Morlocks retained some rudimentary
intelligence required to do their work.
76
The Time Traveler realizes this slight evolutionary
advantage is hugely beneficial to the Morlocks, who are revealed in a startling moment to be
cannibalistically preying on the defenseless Eloi.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
74
!Wells,!The$Time$Machine,!36.!!
75
!Ibid.!
76
!John!S.!Parting ton ,!“‘Th e !Tim e !M ac hin e’!a nd !‘A!Modern!Utop ia’:!Th e!Sta tic!an d !Kin etic!!
!!!!!!!!!!Utopias!of!the!Early!H.G.!Wells.”!Utopian!Studies!13,!no.!1!(June!2002):!62.!
!!!!Wells,!The$Time$Machine,!97.!!
50
Victorian Romanticism in The Time Machine
In addition to the blatant social critiques of Victorian England, Wells adopted another
nineteenth century ideal—one that became prevalent in science fiction—Romanticism. From the
lofty descriptions of architecture to the sentiment of a lost time and the ravenous images of
nature reclaiming the world, Wells shrouds his critique in beautiful Romantic reflection. The
Time Machine, as well as a few of Wells’s other early works, have been deemed ‘scientific
romances’ by literary scholars, as well as by Wells himself.
77
The idea of scientific romance
may on the surface appear contradictory as Romanticism is often viewed as the artistic rebuttal to
the Enlightenment’s love of scientific advancement, an idea that is a cornerstone of science
fiction. However Romanticism was not a complete dismissal of science in favor of art and human
thought; rather it was a movement that hoped to use the discovery and empowerment of the
Enlightenment to advance human understanding and feeling.
78
Science and Romanticism were
never mutually exclusive, and in some of its varied forms the latter actually was built upon the
former. One must also take into account that Wells was writing after the height of both
movements, at a time when it was possible to bring the two together as an entirely new idea.
Likewise, the science in Wells’s science fiction is not entirely empirical—it is often downplayed
to the point of acting as a “device” to perpetuate the message of the story.
79
In this case, a
message more in line with Romantic ideals.
Much of the Romanticism in Wells’s Time Machine is motivated by a rejection of
industrialization. The Morlocks, which represent everything the Time Traveler fears, are aligned
with technology and industrialization; they are beings of “mere mechanical industry” banished,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
77
!Alkon,!Science$Fiction$Before$1900:$Imagination$Discovers$Technology,!7.!
78
!Winks!and!Neuberger,!Europe$and$the$Making$of$Modernity,!42.!
79
!Malmgren,!Worlds$Apart:$Narratology$of$Science$Fiction,!14.!
51
in the futuristic society, to the underground with other horrible things.
80
This continued
commentary on the Morlocks’ industrial prowess sustains the plot and progress the story while
adding to Wells’s argument about the potential destructiveness of the class system and playing
into the Romanticism of the novel. Industrialization was a topic Romantics found interesting
because it represented a significant change in day to day life. Some favored the bleakness of
industrial towns, clouded with smog and the lives of thousands of workers crammed together,
while other Romantics feared industrialization because it was a further departure from the
beloved days of old.
81
The Romantic battle between the glory of industry and the sentimentality of nature is
represented in the aesthetic differences between the Morlocks and Eloi, and echoed in Wells’s
intense imagery of nature reclaiming the world from man. As industrialization claimed expanses
of Europe throughout the nineteenth century, many romantics became concerned with the
destruction of nature caused by growing cities.
82
People were becoming more isolated from
nature, which became “an abstract consumer product,” that was more an outside force than
something the common man understood.
83
One of the many romantic views of the century was
the belief that nature would eventually dominate over man, as it had in the past. Wells’s Time
Traveler expresses the same sentiment as he describes the “condition of ruinous splendor” in
which he finds the world:
84
“A little way up the hill…was a great heap of granite, bound together by masses of
aluminum, a vast labyrinth of precipitous walls and crumbled heaps, amidst which were
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
80
!Wells,!The$Time$Machine,!98.!
81
!Winks!and!Nerburger,!Europe$and$the$Making$of$Modernity,!83.!
82
!Winks!and!Neuberger,$Europe$and$the$Making$of$Modernity,!42.!
83
!Peter!Heymans,!Animality$in$British$Romanticism:$The$Aesthe tic s$o f $Sp e c ies !(N ew !Y ork ,!!
!!!!!!!!!Routledge,!2012),!20.!
84
!Wells,!The$Time$Machine,!33.!
52
very beautiful pagoda-like plants…It was evidently the derelict remains of some vast
structure…”
85
All the great forces of nature slowly reclaim the landscape that man once made great. Eventually,
as the Time Traveler takes another leap into the future beyond 802,701, nature is all that is left in
a silent world: “It would be hard to convey the stillness of it. All the sounds of Man, the bleating
of sheep, the cries of birds, the hum of insects, the stir that makes the background of our lives—
all that was over.”
86
Man as a species is ultimately lost as the planet lives its final days; another
inescapable fate for humanity that plays so well into the web of critique Wells has spun.
Nature’s repossession of the world at the end of the planet’s lifetime also demonstrates
another Romantic quality of the novel which is unrelated to industrialization. The Romantics of
the nineteenth century loved to focus on the extraordinary moments of human experience;
namely, life and death. This grand death of the planet and disappearance of the human race is
arguably the greatest extreme in the history of the planet since its formation. Wells, in a moment
of supreme Romanticism, allows his readers a fleeting glimpse at the end of time.
The Message of H. G. Wells: What Makes us Human?
Wells takes his readers all the way to the end of time to pose hard-hitting questions
concerning social behavior, evolution, and the consequences of human nature. At the same time,
The Time Machine inadvertently set up a road map of the nineteenth century, from lingering
Enlightenment ideals to Romanticism, industrialization to social Darwinism, and the growth of
the divide between capitalist and laborer—all while establishing the trademarks of a developing
genre, of which H. G. Wells was a founder. When viewed as a whole clear connections between
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
85
!Ibid.!
86
!Ibid,!105 .!
53
social critiques, trademarks of the time period, and the genre itself arise and establish the
uniqueness of science fiction as a literary power. The Time Machine manages to serve as a
mirror of its time and record of history while flinging readers into the distant future. Perhaps
most importantly it invites the readers to contemplate topics from social class to industrialization,
romanticism and the very nature of humanity.
One late nineteenth century fan of Wells remarked that the novelist believed “that human
nature in books should be no more pliant than it is in life.”
87
Indeed Wells enthusiastically
examines the nature of mankind’s fictional descendants—but can these descendants be
considered human at all? In examining and criticizing the world, Wells unintentionally sets up
parameters for humanity. Though Wells never directly poses the question ‘what makes a
human?’ in The Time Machine he certainly dances around the idea. As the Time Traveler, who is
never endowed with a name, first encounters the Eloi he is taken aback by their incredible frailty,
likeness to one another, and lack of intelligence; he easily considers them less advanced than his
contemporaries and deems their lower existence “humanity on the wane.”
88
The Morlocks,
despite the remnant of their human ingenuity, are viewed even less favorably by Wells’s Time
Traveler, as “it was impossible, somehow, to feel any humanity in the things.”
89
He goes on to
remark that the “sickening quality of the Morlocks,” makes them “inhuman and malign” and
suggests that through their apparent adoption of cannibalism they have lost the instinct and
intelligence that separates humans from their animal cousins.
90
Wells suggests that true humanity is something beyond simple ancestry and pure science.
There is an intangible aspect of humanity that distinguishes mankind from the rest of the animal
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
87
!Jones,!W.!H an d ley,!“T he !M e ssa ge !of!Mr.!H.!G.!Wells,”!The!Living!Age!(1897_1941),!July!31,!1915.!
88
!Wells,!The$Time$Machine,!36.!
89
!Ibid,!82.!
90
!Ibid,!69.!
!!!!Ibid,!76.!
54
kingdom. To be human, it seems, involves intelligence and inspiration, the drive to create and
the power to destroy; it is “the loyal alliance of capable men,” built throughout history with
“self-restraint, patience and decision.”
91
Humanity is freedom and struggle, thought and desire.
For Wells, the tragedy is that this glorious humanity is fleeting, doomed by a fatalistic universe
to eventually be extinguished by the inhuman duration of time.
92
The Time Machine is, in many
ways, a tale of humanity adrift in an apparently meaningless world.
93
From the Time Traveler’s
continual search for understanding in the future to the “sunset of mankind” depicted in the last
days of Earth and the futility of arbitrary class distinctions, Wells seems to be wondering how
man, the feeble species that is so easily infected with change, fits into the story of the universe.
94
Wells confronts this readers with startling questions and leaves only vague answers.
What, then, does it mean to be human? Is humanity as changing as the quick-paced industry of
the nineteenth century, and as fleeting as the Eloi’s intelligence? Wells laid out the puzzle pieces
on the table and attempted to guide his readers as they put those pieces together, but ultimately it
is left to each individual to find their own meaning. What may be said is this: not all hope is lost
for mankind. It is the fatalistic nature of the novel which inspires the belief that the future does
not have to look like Wells’s year 802,701. Wells warns again and again that the Eloi and
Morlocks’ separation is due to the widening gap between the capitalists and laborers. He reminds
readers that a life saturated with leisure will degrade the mind, and he remarks on the
overwhelming power of nature against man. All this in the hopes that his readers will see the
bleak future to which they have condemned themselves and attempt to make amends before it is
too late. Certainly Wells’s humanity is fated to disintegrate into nothingness, but only because it
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
91
!Ibid,!38.!
92
!Alkon,!Science!Fiction!Before!1900:!Imagination!Discovers!Technology,!50!
93
!Ibid,!51.!
94
!Wells,!The$Time!Machine,!36.!
55
lies on an ill-built foundation. If even one aspect of society was changed, certainly the entire
future of humanity would find a new path. Abolish the class system and humanity never
separates into two sub-human species. Continue to work hard and mankind will be strong.
Recognize the need for balance with nature, and nature will not overtake the world.
Understand man is flawed, and the future is what we make it.
56
Works Cited
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Twayne Publishers, 1994.
Crook, Paul. “Social Darwinism: The Concept.” History of European Ideas 22, no. 4 (July 1996):
261.
Heymans, Peter. Animality in British Romanticism: The Aesthetics of Species. New York:
Routledge, 2012.
Jones, W. Handley. “The Message of Mr. H. G. Wells.” The Living Age (1897-1941), July 31,
1915.
Kagarlitski, J. The Life and Thought of H. G. Wells. Translated by Moura Budberg. New York:
Barnes&Nobles, 1966.
Malmgren, Carl D. Worlds Apart: Narratology of Science Fiction. Indianapolis: Indiana
University Press 1991.
“Mr. H. G. Wells on Novels.” The Times of India (1861-Current). February 14, 1912, sec. Books
and Authors.
http://0search.proquest.com.dewey2.library.denison.edu/hnptimesofindia/docview/231293091/cit
ation/1424F79B85948E6CFB/9?accountid=10474.
Paik, Peter Y. From Utopia to Apocalypse: Science Fiction and the Politics of Catastrophe.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.
Partington, John S. “‘The Time Machine’ and ‘A Modern Utopia’: The Static and Kinetic
Utopias of the Early H.G. Wells.” Utopian Studies 13, no. 1 (June 2002): 57–68.
Wells, H. G. The Time Machine. New York: Bantam Classics, 2003.
West, Robert H. “Science Fiction and Its Ideas.” The Georgia Review 15, no. 3 (October 1,
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Winks, Robin J., and Joan Neuberger. Europe and the Making of Modernity. New York: Oxford,
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