mcs2020.pdf - Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

MINERAL COMMODITY

SUMMARIES 2020

Silicon

Silver

Soda Ash

Stone

Strontium

Sulfur

Talc

Tantalum

Tellurium

Thallium

Thorium

Tin

Titanium

Tungsten

Vanadium

Vermiculite

Wollastonite

Yttrium

Zeolites

Zinc

Zirconium

Mercury

Mica

Molybdenum

Nickel

Niobium

Nitrogen

Palladium

Peat

Perlite

Phosphate Rock

Platinum

Potash

Pumice

Quartz Crystal

Rare Earths

Rhenium

Rubidium

Salt

Sand and Gravel

Scandium

Selenium

Fluorspar

Gallium

Garnet

Gemstones

Germanium

Gold

Graphite

Gypsum

Hafnium

Helium

Indium

Iodine

Iron and Steel

Iron Ore

Iron Oxide Pigments

Kyanite

Lead

Lime

Lithium

Magnesium

Manganese

Abrasives

Aluminum

Antimony

Arsenic

Asbestos

Barite

Bauxite

Beryllium

Bismuth

Boron

Bromine

Cadmium

Cement

Cesium

Chromium

Clays

Cobalt

Copper

Diamond

Diatomite

Feldspar

Cover: Minerals play an integral part in all aspects of our lives. In this rural setting, minerals provide nutrients, such as

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and a host of micronutrients essential to maximize crop yields to ensure reliable food

supplies. Various metals and other mineral materials are required to build the harvesters shown, in addition to the

equipment needed to prepare the fields for and to plant these crops. Open spaces are ideal for wind farms, comprising

myriad wind turbines that require numerous mineral materials for the actual structures as well as the infrastructure to

transmit the electrical power produced to consumers across the nation. (Image provided as a courtesy of John Deere.)

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

MINERAL COMMODITY

SUMMARIES 2020

Abrasives Fluorspar Mercury Silicon

Aluminum Gallium Mica Silver

Antimony Garnet Molybdenum Soda Ash

Arsenic Gemstones Nickel Stone

Asbestos Germanium Niobium Strontium

Barite Gold Nitrogen Sulfur

Bauxite Graphite Palladium Talc

Beryllium Gypsum Peat Tantalum

Bismuth Hafnium Perlite Tellurium

Boron Helium Phosphate Rock Thallium

Bromine Indium Platinum Thorium

Cadmium Iodine Potash Tin

Cement Iron and Steel Pumice Titanium

Cesium Iron Ore Quartz Crystal Tungsten

Chromium Iron Oxide Pigments Rare Earths Vanadium

Clays Kyanite Rhenium Vermiculite

Cobalt Lead Rubidium Wollastonite

Copper Lime Salt Yttrium

Diamond Lithium Sand and Gravel Zeolites

Diatomite Magnesium Scandium Zinc

Feldspar Manganese Selenium Zirconium

U.S. Department of the Interior

DAVID BERNHARDT, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

James F. Reilly II, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2020

Manuscript approved for publication January 31, 2020.

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Suggested citation:

U.S. Geological Survey, 2020, Mineral commodity summaries 2020: U.S. Geological Survey, 200 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/

mcs2020.

ISBN 978-1-4113-4362-7

CONTENTS

Page Page

General:

Introduction .................................................................... 3

The Role of Nonfuel Minerals in the U.S. Economy ...... 4

Significant Events, Trends, and Issues .......................... 5

2019 U.S. Net Import Reliance ..................................... 7

Major Import Sources of Nonfuel Mineral

Commodities in 2019 .................................................. 8

Table 1—U.S. Mineral Industry Trends ......................... 9

Table 2—U.S. Mineral-Related Economic Trends ......... 9

Table 3—Value of Nonfuel Mineral Production in

the United States in 2019 .......................................... 10

Appendix A—Abbreviations and Units of Measure .... 194

Appendix B—Definitions of Selected Terms Used

In This Report .......................................................... 194

Appendix C—Reserves and Resources ..................... 195

Appendix D—Country Specialists Directory ............... 199

ineral Commodities:

brasives (Manufactured) ............................................ 18

Aluminum ..................................................................... 20

Antimony ...................................................................... 22

Arsenic ......................................................................... 24

Asbestos ...................................................................... 26

Barite ............................................................................ 28

Bauxite and Alumina .................................................... 30

Beryllium ...................................................................... 32

Bismuth ........................................................................ 34

Boron ............................................................................ 36

Bromine ........................................................................ 38

Cadmium ...................................................................... 40

Cement......................................................................... 42

Cesium ......................................................................... 44

Chromium..................................................................... 46

Clays ............................................................................ 48

Cobalt ........................................................................... 50

Copper ......................................................................... 52

Diamond (Industrial) ..................................................... 54

Diatomite ...................................................................... 56

Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite .................................. 58

Fluorspar ...................................................................... 60

Gallium ......................................................................... 62

Garnet (Industrial) ........................................................ 64

Gemstones ................................................................... 66

Germanium .................................................................. 68

ld .............................................................................. 70

Graphite (Natural) ........................................................ 72

Gypsum ........................................................................ 74

Helium .......................................................................... 76

Indium .......................................................................... 78

Iodine ........................................................................... 80

Iron and Steel ............................................................... 82

Iron and Steel Scrap .................................................... 84

Iron and Steel Slag ...................................................... 86

Iron Ore ........................................................................ 88

Iron Oxide Pigments .................................................... 90

Kyanite and Related Minerals ...................................... 92

Lead ............................................................................. 94

Lime ............................................................................. 96

Lithium.......................................................................... 98

Magnesium Compounds ............................................ 100

Magnesium Metal ....................................................... 102

Manganese ................................................................ 104

Mercury ....................................................................... 106

Mica (Natural) ............................................................. 108

Molybdenum ............................................................... 110

Nickel .......................................................................... 112

Niobium (Columbium) ................................................. 114

Nitrogen (Fixed)—Ammonia ....................................... 116

Peat ............................................................................ 118

Perlite ......................................................................... 120

Phosphate Rock ......................................................... 122

Platinum-Group Metals ............................................... 124

Potash ........................................................................ 126

Pumice and Pumicite .................................................. 128

Quartz Crystal (Industrial) .......................................... 130

Rare Earths ................................................................ 132

Rhenium ..................................................................... 134

Rubidium .................................................................... 136

Salt ............................................................................. 138

Sand and Gravel (Construction) ................................. 140

Sand and Gravel (Industrial) ...................................... 142

Scandium .................................................................... 144

Selenium ..................................................................... 146

Silicon ......................................................................... 148

Silver ........................................................................... 150

Soda Ash .................................................................... 152

one (Crushed) ......................................................... 154

Stone (Dimension) ...................................................... 156

Strontium .................................................................... 158

Sulfur .......................................................................... 160

Talc and Pyrophyllite .................................................. 162

Tantalum ..................................................................... 164

Tellurium ..................................................................... 166

Thallium ...................................................................... 168

Thorium ...................................................................... 170

Tin ............................................................................... 172

Titanium and Titanium Dioxide ................................... 174

Titanium Mineral Concentrates .................................. 176

Tungsten ..................................................................... 178

Vanadium ................................................................... 180

Vermiculite .................................................................. 182

Wollastonite ................................................................ 184

Yttrium ........................................................................ 186

Zeolites (Natural) ........................................................ 188

Zinc ............................................................................. 190

Zirconium and Hafnium .............................................. 192

INSTANT INFORMATION

Information about the U.S. Geological Survey, its programs, staff, and products is available from the internet at

https://www.usgs.gov or by calling (888) ASK–USGS [(888) 275–8747].

This publication has been prepared by the National Minerals Information Center. Information about the Center and its

products is available from the internet at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic or by writing to Director, National

Minerals Information Center, 988 National Center, Reston, VA 20192.

KEY PUBLICATIONS

Minerals Yearbook—These annual publications review the mineral industries of the United States and of more than

180 other countries. They contain statistical data on minerals and materials and include information on economic and

technical trends and developments and are available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/publications. The three

volumes that make up the Minerals Yearbook are Volume I, Metals and Minerals; Volume II, Area Reports, Domestic;

and Volume III, Area Reports, International.

Mineral Commodity Summaries—Published on an annual basis, this report is the earliest Government publication to

furnish estimates covering nonfuel mineral industry data and is available at

https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/mineral-commodity-summaries. Data sheets contain information on the domestic

industry structure, Government programs, tariffs, and 5-year salient statistics for more than 90 individual minerals and

materials.

Mineral Industry Surveys—These periodic statistical and economic reports are designed to provide timely statistical

data on production, shipments, stocks, and consumption of significant mineral commodities and are available at

https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/mineral-industry-surveys. The surveys are issued monthly, quarterly, or at other

regular intervals.

Materials Flow Studies—These publications describe the flow of minerals and materials from extraction to ultimate

disposition to help better understand the economy, manage the use of natural resources, and protect the environment

and are available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/materials-flow.

Recycling Reports—These studies illustrate the recycling of metal commodities and identify recycling trends and are

available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/recycling-statistics-and-information.

Historical Statistics for Mineral and Material Commodities in the United States (Data Series 140)—This report

provides a compilation of statistics on production, trade, and use of approximately 90 mineral commodities since as

far back as 1900 and is available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/historical-statistics-mineral-and-material-

commodities-united-states.

WHERE TO OBTAIN PUBLICATIONS

• Mineral Commodity Summaries and the Minerals Yearbook are sold by the U.S. Government Publishing Office.

Orders are accepted over the internet at https://bookstore.gpo.gov, by email at ContactCenter@gpo.gov, by

telephone toll free (866) 512–1800; Washington, DC area (202) 512–1800, by fax (202) 512–2104, or through the

mail (P.O. Box 979050, St. Louis, MO 63197–9000).

• All current and many past publications are available in PDF format (and some are available in XLS format)

through https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic.

INTRODUCTION

Each chapter of the 2020 edition of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Mineral Commodity Summaries (MCS)

includes information on events, trends, and issues for each mineral commodity as well as discussions and tabular

presentations on domestic industry structure, Government programs, tariffs, 5-year salient statistics, and world

production and resources. The MCS is the earliest comprehensive source of 2019 mineral production data for the

world. More than 90 individual minerals and materials are covered by two-page synopses.

For mineral commodities for which there is a Government stockpile, detailed information concerning the stockpile

status is included in the two-page synopsis.

Abbreviations and units of measure and definitions of selected terms used in the report are in Appendix A and

Appendix B, respectively. “Appendix C—Reserves and Resources” includes “Part A—Resource/Reserve

Classification for Minerals” and “Part B—Sources of Reserves Data.” A directory of USGS minerals information

country specialists and their responsibilities is Appendix D.

The USGS continually strives to improve the value of its publications to users. Constructive comments and

suggestions by readers of the MCS 2020 are welcomed.

THE ROLE OF NONFUEL MINERALS

IN THE U.S. ECONOMY

(ESTIMATED VALUES IN 2019)

NET EXPORTS OF MINERAL

RAW MATERIALS

GOLD, SODA ASH, ZINC

CONCENTRATES, ETC.

Exports: $9.3 billion

Imports: $5.6 billion

Net exports: $3.7 billion

DOMESTIC MINERAL RAW

MATERIALS FROM MINING

COPPER ORES, IRON ORE,

SAND AND GRAVEL,

STONE, ETC.

Value: $86.3 billion

METALS AND MINERAL

PRODUCTS RECYCLED

DOMESTICALLY

ALUMINUM, GLASS, STEEL,

ETC.

Value of old scrap: $36.1 billion

NET EXPORTS OF OLD

SCRAP

GOLD, STEEL, ETC.

Exports: $15.8 billion

Imports: $6.1 billion

Net exports: $9.7 billion

MINERAL MATERIALS

PROCESSED

DOMESTICALLY

ALUMINUM, BRICK, CEMENT,

COPPER, FERTILIZERS,

STEEL, ETC.

Value of shipments:

$770 billion

NET IMPORTS OF

PROCESSED MINERAL

MATERIALS

METALS, CHEMICALS, ETC.

Imports: $139 billion

Exports: $86 billion

Net imports: $53 billion

Sources: U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Department of Commerce.

Major consuming industries of processed mineral materials are construction, durable goods manufacturers, and some

nondurable goods manufacturers. The value of shipments for processed mineral materials cannot be directly related to

gross domestic product.

U.S. ECONOMY

Gross Domestic Product:

$21,429 billion

VALUE ADDED TO

GROSS DOMESTIC

PRODUCT BY MAJOR

INDUSTRIES THAT

CONSUME PROCESSED

MINERAL MATERIALS

Value: $3,130 billion

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS, TRENDS, AND ISSUES

In 2019, the estimated total value of nonfuel mineral

production in the United States was $86.3 billion, an

increase of 3% from the revised total of $84 billion in

2018. The estimated value of metals production

increased slightly to $28.1 billion. Lower production of

some metals was offset by increased values. Byproduct

vanadium was produced in Utah for the first time since

2013. The total value of industrial minerals production

was $58.2 billion, a 3% increase from that of 2018. Of

this total, $27.7 billion was construction aggregates

production (construction sand and gravel and crushed

stone). Crushed stone was the leading nonfuel mineral

commodity in 2019 accounting for 22% of the total value

of U.S. nonfuel mineral production. Increased

construction activity resulted in increased prices and

production of some industrial minerals.

In 2018, as a result of U.S. Department of Commerce

findings of harm to national security under Section 232

of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, as amended (19

U.S.C. 1862), additional import duties for aluminum

articles and steel articles were put into place. Several

Presidential Proclamations were issued in 2019

modifying either the tariff rates or the countries affected.

After the United States, Canada, and Mexico reached an

agreement on trade terms in May, the ad valorem duties

for aluminum and steel imports were removed for

Canada and Mexico. As of December 2019, aluminum

imports from all countries except Argentina, Australia,

Canada, and Mexico remained subject to a 10% ad

valorem tariff, and steel imports from all countries except

Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Republic of

Korea, and Mexico remained subject to a 25% ad

valorem tariff.

Under Section 301 (b) of the Trade Act of 1974, as

amended, the Office of the United States Trade

Representative (USTR) determined that acts, policies

and practices of China related to technology transfer,

intellectual property, and innovation were discriminatory

or unreasonable and those actions burdened or

restricted United States commerce (83 FR 14906) in

2018. Several lists of tariff lines (Lists 1, 2, 3) were

compiled, and imports of those materials became

subject to an additional import duty for products from

China. Lists 1 and 2 had duty rates of 25% implemented

in July 2018 and August 2018, respectively. List 3, which

included nonfuel mineral commodities, had a duty rate of

10% imposed in late September 2018. The rate was

scheduled to increase to 25% on January 1, 2019;

however, that action was delayed. From January through

May 2019, trade discussions between the United States

and China were ongoing. In May 2019, because a trade

agreement was not reached, the United States

increased tariffs for List 3 items to 25% (84 FR 20459).

China likewise imposed additional import duties for

certain items originating in the United States. In

December, a phase one trade agreement was reached

between the United States and China, which reduced

some tariff rates and resulted in additional tariffs not

being implemented. At yearend 2019, the United States

had a 25% tariff on approximately $250 billion of imports

from China, including nonfuel mineral commodities, and

a 7.5% tariff on approximately $120 billion of imports

from China. China had additional tariffs ranging from 5%

to 30% on approximately $110 billion of imports from the

United States.

Also under Section 301 (b) of the Trade Act of 1974, as

amended, the USTR published a request for comments

in December (84 FR 67992) on proposed additional ad

valorem duty rates of up to 100% for items from

specified European countries, including several

ferroalloys and other nonfuel mineral commodities. The

critical minerals niobium, palladium, rhenium, and

vanadium were on the list of proposed items.

Executive Order 13817, A Federal Strategy to Ensure

Secure and Reliable Supplies of Critical Minerals (EO),

was issued on December 20, 2017. Several actions

were required of Federal agencies to address critical

minerals. Pursuant to the EO, the Secretary of the

Interior, in coordination with the Secretary of Defense,

and in consultation with the heads of other relevant

executive departments and agencies, was tasked with

developing and submitting a list of minerals defined as

critical minerals to the Federal Register. The final list of

critical minerals was published in the Federal Register

on May 18, 2018 (83 FR 23295), which included 35

minerals or mineral material groups. These were

aluminum (bauxite), antimony, arsenic, barite, beryllium,

bismuth, cesium, chromium, cobalt, fluorspar, gallium,

germanium, graphite (natural), hafnium, helium, indium,

lithium, magnesium, manganese, niobium, platinum-

group metals, potash, the rare-earth-elements group,

rhenium, rubidium, scandium, strontium, tantalum,

tellurium, tin, titanium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, and

zirconium.

The EO also directed the Secretary of Commerce, in

coordination with heads of selected executive branch

agencies and offices, to submit a report to the President

that includes: “a strategy to reduce the Nation’s reliance

on critical minerals; an assessment of progress toward

developing critical minerals recycling and reprocessing

technologies, and technological alternatives to critical

minerals; options for accessing and developing critical

minerals through investment and trade with our allies

and partners; a plan to improve the topographic,

geologic, and geophysical mapping of the United States

and make the resulting data and metadata electronically

accessible, to the extent permitted by law and subject to

appropriate limitations for purposes of privacy and

security, to support private sector mineral exploration of

critical minerals; and recommendations to streamline

permitting and review processes related to developing

leases; enhancing access to critical mineral resources;

and increasing discovery, production, and domestic

refining of critical minerals.” In June 2019, the U.S.

Department of Commerce issued the report,

which presented 6 Calls to Action, 24 goals, and 61

recommendations that describe specific steps that the

Federal Government will take to achieve the objectives

outlined in the EO.

As shown in the figure on page 4, minerals remained

fundamental to the U.S. economy, contributing to the

real gross domestic product at several levels, including

mining, processing, and manufacturing finished

products. The estimated value of nonfuel minerals

produced at mines in the United States in 2019 was

$86.3 billion. The value of net exports of mineral raw

materials increased to $3.7 billion from $2.9 billion in

2018. Domestic raw materials and domestically recycled

materials were used to produce mineral materials worth

$770 billion. Of the $36.1 billion of domestically recycled

products, iron and steel scrap contributed $17.6 billion.

These mineral materials as well as imports of processed

mineral materials, which decreased by 8% in 2019,

were, in turn, consumed by downstream industries with

an estimated value of $3.13 trillion in 2019, a 2.5%

increase from the revised figure of $3.05 trillion in 2018.

The figure on page 7 illustrates the reliance of the United

States on foreign sources for raw and processed mineral

materials. In 2019, imports made up more than one-half

of the U.S. apparent consumption for 46 nonfuel mineral

commodities, and the United States was 100% net

import reliant for 17 of those. Critical minerals comprised

14 of the 17 mineral commodities with 100% net import

reliance and comprised 17 of the 29 remaining mineral

commodities with imports greater than 50% of annual

consumption.

The figure on page 8 shows the countries from which the

majority of these mineral commodities were imported

and the number of mineral commodities for which each

highlighted country was a leading supplier. China,

followed by Canada, supplied the largest number of

nonfuel mineral commodities. The United States was

import reliant for an additional 30 commodities and was

a net exporter of 17 nonfuel mineral commodities.

The estimated value of U.S. metal mine production in

2019 was $28.1 billion, slightly more than that of 2018

(table 1). Principal contributors to the total value of metal

mine production in 2019 were gold (32%), copper (28%),

iron ore (19%), and zinc (7%). The estimated value of

U.S. industrial minerals production in 2019, including

construction aggregates, was $58.2 billion, about 3%

more than the revised value of 2018 (table 1). The value

of industrial minerals production in 2019 was dominated

by crushed stone (32%), cement (masonry and portland)

(19%), construction sand and gravel (16%) and industrial

sand and gravel (10%).

In 2019, U.S. production of 13 mineral commodities was

valued at more than $1 billion each. These commodities

were, in decreasing order of value, crushed stone,

cement, construction sand and gravel, gold, copper,

industrial sand and gravel, iron ore, lime, salt, zinc, soda

ash, phosphate rock, and molybdenum concentrates.

In 2019, 13 States each produced more than $2 billion

worth of nonfuel mineral commodities. These States

were, in descending order of production value, Nevada,

Arizona, Texas, Minnesota, California, Florida, Utah,

Alaska, Missouri, Michigan, Wyoming, Georgia, and

Pennsylvania (table 3 and figure on page 12).

The Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) Strategic Materials

is responsible for providing safe, secure, and

environmentally sound stewardship for strategic and

critical materials in the U.S. National Defense Stockpile

(NDS). DLA Strategic Materials stores 48 commodities

at 12 locations in the United States. In fiscal year 2019,

DLA Strategic Materials acquired approximately $14.5

million of new stock and sold $37.14 million of excess

materials from the NDS. At the end of fiscal year 2019,

materials valued at $1.03 billion remained in the NDS. Of

the remaining material, portions were held in reserve,

offered for sale, or sales were suspended. Additional

detailed information can be found in the “Government

Stockpile” sections in the mineral commodity chapters

that follow. Under the authority of the Defense

Production Act of 1950, the U.S. Geological Survey

advises the DLA on acquisitions and disposals of NDS

mineral materials.

Commodity Percent Major import sources (2015–18)

ARSENIC (all forms) 100 China, Morocco, Belgium

ASBESTOS 100 Brazil, Russia

CESIUM 100 Canada

FLUORSPAR 100 Mexico, Vietnam, South Africa, China

GALLIUM 100 China, United Kingdom, Germany, Ukraine

GRAPHITE (natural) 100 China, Mexico, Canada, India

INDIUM 100 China, Canada, Republic of Korea, Taiwan

MANGANESE 100 South Africa, Gabon, Australia, Georgia

MICA, sheet (natural) 100 China, Brazil, Belgium, Austria

NEPHELINE SYENITE 100 Canada

NIOBIUM (columbium) 100 Brazil, Canada, Russia, Germany

RARE EARTHS

(compounds and metal) 100 China, Estonia, Japan, Malaysia

RUBIDIUM 100 Canada

SCANDIUM 100 Europe, China, Japan, Russia

STRONTIUM 100 Mexico, Germany, China

TANTALUM 100 Rwanda, Brazil, Australia, Congo (Kinshasa)

YTTRIUM 100 China, Estonia, Republic of Korea, Japan

GEMSTONES 99 India, Israel, Belgium, South Africa

BISMUTH 96 China, Belgium, Mexico, Republic of Korea

TELLURIUM >95 Canada, China, Germany

VANADIUM 94

Austria, Canada, Russia, Republic of Korea

TITANIUM MINERAL CONCENTRATES 93 South Africa, Australia, Canada, Mozambique

POTASH 91 Canada, Russia, Belarus, Israel

DIAMOND (industrial stones) 88 India, South Africa, Botswana, Australia

BARITE 87 China, India, Morocco, Mexico

ZINC (refined) 87 Canada, Mexico, Australia, Peru

TITANIUM (sponge) 86

Japan, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, China, Russia

ANTIMONY (metal and oxide) 84 China, Thailand, Belgium, India

RHENIUM 82 Chile, Germany, Kazakhstan, Canada

STONE (dimension) 81 China, Brazil, Italy, Turkey

COBALT 78 Norway, Japan, China, Canada

TIN (refined) 77 Indonesia, Malaysia, Peru, Bolivia

ABRASIVES, fused Al oxide (crude) >75 China, Hong Kong, France, Canada

BAUXITE >75 Jamaica, Brazil, Guinea, Guyana

CHROMIUM 72 South Africa, Kazakhstan, Russia

PEAT 70 Canada

SILVER 68 Mexico, Canada, Peru, Poland

GARNET (industrial) 64 Australia, India, South Africa, China

PLATINUM 64 South Africa, Germany, Italy, Russia

ALUMINA 54 Brazil, Australia, Jamaica, Canada

MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS 52 China, Canada, Australia, Hong Kong

ABRASIVES, silicon carbide (crude) >50 China, South Africa, Netherlands, Hong Kong

GERMANIUM >50 China, Belgium, Germany, Russia

IODINE >50 Chile, Japan

IRON OXIDE PIGMENTS (natural and synthetic) >50 China, Germany, Brazil, Canada

TUNGSTEN >50 China, Bolivia, Germany, Spain

DIAMOND (industrial dust, grit, and powder) 50 China, Ireland, Republic of Korea, Russia

CADMIUM <50 China, Australia, Canada, Peru

MAGNESIUM METAL <50 Israel, Canada, Mexico, United Kingdom

NICKEL 47 Canada, Norway, Australia, Finland

SILICON (metal and ferrosilicon) 41 Russia, Brazil, Canada

MICA, scrap and flake (natural) 37 Canada, China, India, Finland

COPPER (refined) 35 Chile, Canada, Mexico

PALLADIUM 32 South Africa, Russia, Germany, Italy

LEAD (refined) 30 Canada, Mexico, Republic of Korea, India

SALT 29 Chile, Canada, Mexico, Egypt

PERLITE 28 Greece, China, Mexico

LITHIUM >25 Argentina, Chile, China

BROMINE <25 Israel, Jordan, China

SELENIUM <25 China, Philippines, Mexico, Germany

ALUMINUM 22 Canada, Russia, United Arab Emirates, China

IRON and STEEL 21 Canada, Brazil, Republic of Korea

2019 U.S. NET IMPORT RELIANCE

Not all mineral commodities covered in this publication are listed here. Those not shown include mineral commodities for which the United States is a net exporter

(abrasives, metallic; boron; clays; diatomite; gold; helium; iron and steel scrap; iron ore; kyanite; molybdenum concentrates; sand and gravel, industrial; soda ash; titanium

dioxide pigment; wollastonite; zeolites; and zirconium mineral concentrates) or less than 21% import reliant (beryllium; cement; feldspar; gypsum; iron and steel slag; lime;

nitrogen (fixed)

–ammonia; phosphate rock; pumice; sand and gravel, construction; stone, crushed; sulfur; talc and pyrophyllite; and vermiculite.). For some mineral

commodities (hafnium; mercury; quartz crystal, industrial; thallium; and thorium), not enough information is available to calculate the exact percentage of import reliance.

In descending order of import share.

Data include lanthanides.

180°

160°

140°

120°

100°

80°

60°

40°

20°

0°

-20°

-40°

-60°

-80°

-100°

-120°

-140°

-160°

-180°

40° 40°

20° 20°

0° 0°

-20° -20°

-40° -40°

80° 80°

60° 60°

-60° -60°

-80° -80°

1 - 3

4 - 6

7 - 12

13 - 18

19 - 24

1 to 3

4 to 6

13 to 18

7 to 12

19 to 24

UNITED

STATES

CANADA

SOUTH

AFRICA

CHINA

Number of commodities, 2019

EXPLANATION

BRAZIL

MEXICO

RUSSIA

AUSTRALIA

INDIA

JAPAN

PERU

BOLIVIA

CHILE

JAMAICA

GUINEA

MOZAMBIQUE

GABON

REPUBLIC OF KOREA

MALAYSIA

INDONESIA

ISRAEL

KAZAKHSTAN

NORWAY

TURKEY

UKRAINE

UNITED KINGDOM

MOROCCO

AUSTRIA

ESTONIA

FRANCE

GEORGIA

ITALY

NETHERLANDS

POLAND

SPAIN

GUYANA

MAJOR IMPORT SOURCES OF NONFUEL MINERAL COMMODITIES

FOR WHICH THE UNITED STATES WAS GREATER THAN 50% NET IMPORT RELIANT IN 2019

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

RWANDA

VIETNAM

In 2019, no countries qualified for the "13 to 18 commodities" category.

BOTSWANA

CONGO (KINSHASA)

TAIWAN

HONG KONG

THAILAND

BELARUS

BELGIUM

GERMANY

TABLE 1.—U.S. MINERAL INDUSTRY TRENDS

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Total mine production (million dollars):

Metals

24,400

23,800

26,500

27,700

28,100

Industrial minerals

48,600

47,700

52,700

56,300

58,200

Coal

28,500

22,300

26,100

27,200

25,100

Employment (thousands of production workers):

Coal mining

Nonfuel mineral mining

101

Chemicals and allied products

507

516

525

548

563

Stone, clay, and glass products

296

306

305

310

311

Primary metal industries

307

293

292

294

296

Average weekly earnings of production workers (dollars):

Coal mining

1,383

1,336

1,432

1,437

1,520

Chemicals and allied products

927

920

1,011

1,072

1,069

Stone, clay, and glass products

843

850

873

945

967

Primary metal industries

987

1,002

995

1,035

1,025

Estimated.

Sources: U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of Energy, and U.S. Department of Labor.

TABLE 2.—U.S. MINERAL-RELATED ECONOMIC TRENDS

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Gross domestic product (billion dollars)

18,225

18,715

19,519

20,580

21,429

Industrial production (2012=100):

Total index:

104

102

104

109

Manufacturing:

102

101

103

106

Nonmetallic mineral products

110

111

115

120

Primary metals:

Iron and steel

Aluminum

107

106

103

107

109

Nonferrous metals (except aluminum)

Chemicals

100

101

Mining:

114

103

110

124

132

Coal

Oil and gas extraction

134

129

135

156

171

Metals

100

Nonmetallic minerals

116

114

118

119

125

Capacity utilization (percent):

Total industry:

Mining:

Metals

Nonmetallic minerals

Housing starts (thousands)

1,107

1,178

1,209

1,250

1,260

Light vehicle sales (thousands)

17,396

17,465

17,136

17,214

17,000

Highway construction, value, put in place (billion dollars)

100

Estimated.

Sources: U.S. Department of Commerce, Federal Reserve Board, and U.S. Department of Transportation.

TABLE 3.—VALUE OF NONFUEL MINERAL PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES AND

PRINCIPAL NONFUEL MINERALS PRODUCED IN 2019

e, 1

State

Value

(millions)

Rank

Percent

of U.S.

total

Principal commodities

Alabama

$1,690

1.96

Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand and

gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Alaska

3,130

3.63

Gold, lead, sand and gravel (construction), silver, zinc.

Arizona

6,970

8.08

Cement (portland), copper, molybdenum concentrates, sand and

gravel (construction), stone (crushed).

Arkansas

901

1.04

Bromine, cement (portland), sand and gravel (construction), sand

and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

California

4,490

5.20

Boron minerals, cement (portland), gold, sand and gravel

(construction), stone (crushed).

Colorado

1,790

2.07

Cement (portland), gold, molybdenum concentrates, sand and

gravel (construction), stone (crushed).

Connecticut

191

0.22

Clay (common clay), sand and gravel (construction), stone

(crushed), stone (dimension).

Delaware

0.03

Magnesium compounds, sand and gravel (construction), stone

(crushed).

Florida

3,370

3.91

Cement (portland), phosphate rock, sand and gravel

(construction), stone (crushed), zirconium mineral concentrates.

Georgia

2,170

2.52

Cement (portland), clay (kaolin and montmorillonite), sand and

gravel (construction), stone (crushed).

Hawaii

134

0.16

Sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed).

Idaho

185

0.21

Lead, phosphate rock, sand and gravel (construction), silver,

stone (crushed).

Illinois

1,470

1.17

Cement (portland), sand and gravel (construction), sand and

gravel (industrial), silica (tripoli), stone (crushed).

Indiana

695

0.81

Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), stone

(crushed), stone (dimension).

Iowa

836

0.97

Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand and

gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Kansas

1,070

1.24

Cement (portland), helium (Grade-A), salt, sand and gravel

(construction), stone (crushed).

Kentucky

591

0.68

Cement (portland), clay (common clay), lime, sand and gravel

(construction), stone (crushed).

Louisiana

614

0.71

Clay (common clay), salt, sand and gravel (construction), sand

and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Maine

102

0.12

Cement (portland), peat, sand and gravel (construction), stone

(crushed), stone (dimension).

Maryland

575

0.67

Cement (masonry and portland), sand and gravel (construction),

stone (crushed), stone (dimension).

Massachusetts

289

0.34

Clay (common clay), lime, sand and gravel (construction), stone

(crushed), stone (dimension).

Michigan

2,750

3.18

Cement (portland), iron ore, salt, sand and gravel (construction),

stone (crushed).

Minnesota

5,300

6.14

Iron ore, lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel

(industrial), stone (crushed).

Mississippi

504

0.58

Clay (ball clay and montmorillonite), sand and gravel

(construction), sand and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Missouri

3,050

3.53

Cement (portland), lead, lime, sand and gravel (industrial), stone

(crushed).

Montana

1,280

1.49

Copper, molybdenum concentrates, palladium, platinum, sand

and gravel (construction).

See footnotes at end of table.

TABLE 3.—VALUE OF NONFUEL MINERAL PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES AND

PRINCIPAL NONFUEL MINERALS PRODUCED IN 2019

e, 1

—Continued

State

Value

(millions)

Rank

Percent

of U.S.

total

Principal commodities

Nebraska

$214

0.25

Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand and

gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Nevada

8,190

9.49

Copper, diatomite, gold, lime, sand and gravel (construction).

New Hampshire

156

0.18

Sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed), stone

(dimension).

New Jersey

377

0.44

Peat, sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel (industrial),

stone (crushed).

New Mexico

1,090

1.26

Cement (portland), copper, potash, sand and gravel

(construction), stone (crushed).

New York

1,870

2.16

Cement (portland), salt, sand and gravel (construction), stone

(crushed), zinc.

North Carolina

1,420

1.64

Clay (common clay), phosphate rock, sand and gravel

(construction), sand and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

North Dakota

0.07

Clay (common clay), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand

and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Ohio

1,400

1.62

Cement (portland), lime, salt, sand and gravel (construction),

stone (crushed).

Oklahoma

1,070

1.24

Cement (portland), iodine, sand and gravel (construction), sand

and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Oregon

499

0.58

Cement (portland), diatomite, perlite (crude), sand and gravel

(construction), stone (crushed).

Pennsylvania

2,100

2.44

Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand and

gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Rhode Island

0.06

Sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel (industrial), stone

(crushed).

South Carolina

1,140

1.32

Cement (masonry and portland), gold, sand and gravel

(construction), stone (crushed).

South Dakota

312

0.36

Cement (portland), gold, lime, sand and gravel (construction),

stone (crushed).

Tennessee

1,420

1.64

Cement (portland), sand and gravel (construction), sand and

gravel (industrial), stone (crushed), zinc.

Texas

6,470

7.49

Cement (portland), salt, sand and gravel (construction), sand and

gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).

Utah

3,320

3.85

Copper, gold, molybdenum concentrates, salt, sand and gravel

(construction).

Vermont

0.11

Sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed), stone

(dimension), talc (crude).

Virginia

1,520

1.76

Cement (portland), kyanite, lime, sand and gravel (construction),

stone (crushed).

Washington

869

1.01

Cement (portland), diatomite, sand and gravel (construction),

stone (crushed), zinc.

West Virginia

332

0.38

Cement (masonry and portland), lime, sand and gravel

(industrial), stone (crushed).

Wisconsin

1,950

2.26

Lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel (industrial),

stone (crushed), stone (dimension).

Wyoming

2,630

3.05

Cement (portland), clay (bentonite), helium (Grade-A), sand and

gravel (construction), soda ash.

Undistributed

3,580

4.15

Total

86,300

100.00

Estimated. XX Not applicable.

Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.

Rank based on total, unadjusted State values.

Listed in alphabetical order for each State.

Partial total; excludes values that must be withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data, which are included in "Undistributed."

EXPLANATION

Value, in billion dollars

1 to 2

>2 to 4

>4 to 9

*Partial total; excludes values that must be withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data, which are included with "Undistributed" in table 3.

VALUE OF NONFUEL MINERALS PRODUCED IN 2019, BY STATE

Value, in billion dollars

Metals

$28.1 billion

Natural Aggregates

$27.7 billion

Other Industrial

Minerals

$30.5 billion

U.S. total: $86.3 billion

West

REE

P2P2

REE

IRZ

West

Midwest

Northeast

South

Gold

Nickel, copper, and cobalt

Magnesium

Platinum and palladium ± gold and silver

Copper ± molybdenum ± gold and silver

Lead and zinc

Molybdenum

REE

Rare-earth elements

Copper ± silver

Beryllium

Silver ± base metals ± gold

Vanadium

Lead and zinc ± copper ± silver

Iron ore

Gold and silver

Zinc

Silver and zinc ± lead and gold

IRZ

Ilmenite, rutile, and zircon

Gold and silver ± base metals

EXPLANATION

IRZ

VALUE OF METALS AND METALLIC MINERALS PRODUCED IN 2019,

BY REGION

EXPLANATION

Value, in billion dollars

>0 to 0.5

>0.5 to 4

>4 to 8

21.3

West

Gyp

Dia

Pum

Per

NaC

Pum

Fel

Dia

Kao

Ful

Zeo

Bent

Salt

MgCp

Salt

Clay

Bent

Mica

Clay

Bent

Salt

Clay

Salt

Bent

NaC

Gyp

Dia

IOP

Gyp

Fel

Pum

Per

Dia

Zeo

Pum

Per

Gyp

Bar

Gar

Zeo

Pum

Gar

Fel

Gyp

Zeo

Pum

Gyp

Dia

Zeo

Pum

Per

Gyp

Bent

Peat

Clay

Salt

Clay

Bent

Clay

MgCp

Talc

Clay

Salt

Bent

Salt

MgCp

Clay

Bent

Clay

Gyp

Fel

Gyp

Mica

Clay

Salt

Clay

Mica

Clay

Bent

Fel

Ful

Gyp

Pum

Gyp

Ful

Gyp

Salt

Clay

Peat

Clay

Peat

Salt

Peat

Clay

Salt

Clay

Peat

Clay

Peat

Clay

Peat

Salt

MgCp

Salt

Clay

Peat

Clay

Peat

Wol

Gar

Talc

Peat

Salt

Clay

Salt

Peat

Clay

Salt

Peat

Clay

Kya

Fel

Gyp

Kao

Gyp

Fel

Gyp

IOP

Kao

Bar

Kao

Gyp

IOP

Clay

Salt

Bent

Salt

Clay

Salt

Clay

Pyrp

Mica

Clay

Salt

Clay

Ful

Zeo

Gyp

Ful

Kao

Gyp

Pum

Per

Ful

Gyp

Pum

Gyp

Ful

Gyp

Kao

Ful

Gyp

Salt

Talc

Salt

Clay

Bent

Clay

Salt

Peat

Clay

Peat

Clay

Peat

Clay

Salt

Clay

Bent

Clay

Salt

Clay

Salt

Clay

Peat

Clay

Peat

Mica

Clay

Peat

Clay

Bent

VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL MINERALS PRODUCED IN 2019, BY REGION

EXPLANATION

Value, in billion dollars

1.7

8.4

8.8

11.5

B Borates DS Dimensio n stone I Io dine M gCp M agnesium compounds Pyrp Pyrophyllite

Bar Barite FC Fire clay IOP Iro n o xide pigments M ica M ica Salt Salt

BC Ball clay Fel Feldspar IS Industrial sand NaC Soda ash Talc Talc

Bent Bento nite Ful Fuller's earth K Po tash P P hosphate rock Ver Vermiculite

Br Bro mine Gar Garnet Kao Kaolin Peat Peat Wo l Wollastonite

Clay Co mmo n clay Gyp Gypsum Kya Kyanite Per Perlite Zeo Zeolites

Dia Diato mite He Helium Li Lithium Pum Pumice

EXPLANATION

West

Midwest

Northeast

South

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VALUE OF CRUSHED STONE

PRODUCED IN 2019, BY STATE

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Value, in million dollars

EXPLANATION

Value, in million dollars

<100

100 to 300

>300 to 800

>800

Withheld

Crushed stone operation

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EXPLANATION

Value, in million dollars

<100

100 to 200

>200 to 600

>600

Sand and gravel operation

VALUE OF CONSTRUCTION SAND AND GRAVEL

PRODUCED IN 2019, BY STATE

300

600

900

1,200

1,500

Value, in million dollars

(THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK)

ABRASIVES (MANUFACTURED)

(Fused aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and metallic abrasives)

(Data in metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Fused aluminum oxide was produced by two companies at three plants in the

United States and Canada. Production of crude fused aluminum oxide had an estimated value of $7 million. Silicon

carbide was produced by two companies at two plants in the United States. Production of crude silicon carbide had

an estimated value of about $26 million. Metallic abrasives were produced by 11 companies in 8 States. Production of

metallic abrasives had an estimated value of about $190 million. Bonded and coated abrasive products accounted for

most abrasive uses of fused aluminum oxide and silicon carbide. Metallic abrasives are used primarily for steel shot

and grit and cut wire shot, which are used for sandblasting, peening, and stonecutting applications.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Fused aluminum oxide, crude

1, 2

10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000

Silicon carbide

35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000

Metallic abrasives 206,000 188,000 179,000 180,000 180,000

Shipments, metallic abrasives 224,000 204,000 197,000 196,000 190,000

Imports for consumption:

Fused aluminum oxide 164,000 155,000 206,000 193,000 170,000

Silicon carbide 139,000 116,000 137,000 146,000 110,000

Metallic abrasives 52,800 54,100 29,600 29,900 30,000

Exports:

Fused aluminum oxide 15,000 14,300 15,500 19,300 22,000

Silicon carbide 19,700 6,820 6,100 10,100 12,000

Metallic abrasives 35,900 28,600 31,000 33,600 32,000

Consumption, apparent:

Fused aluminum oxide

159,000 151,000 201,000 184,000 160,000

Silicon carbide

154,000 144,000 166,000 171,000 130,000

Metallic abrasives

241,000 230,000 196,000 192,000 190,000

Price, average unit value of imports, dollars per ton:

Fused aluminum oxide, regular 579 418 489 692 730

Fused aluminum oxide, high-purity 1,290 1,360 1,220 1,280 1,300

Silicon carbide, crude 552 452 479 670 800

Metallic abrasives 584 543 1,020 1,180 1,300

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption:

Fused aluminum oxide >75 >75 >75 >75 >75

Silicon carbide >75 >75 >75 >75 >50

Metallic abrasives 7 11 E E E

Recycling: Up to 30% of fused aluminum oxide may be recycled, and about 5% of silicon carbide is recycled.

Import Sources (2015–18): Fused aluminum oxide, crude: China, 69%; Hong Kong, 14%; France, 8%; Canada, 4%;

and other, 5%. Fused aluminum oxide, grain: Austria, 19%; Brazil, 17%; Canada, 16%; Germany, 14%; and other,

34%. Silicon carbide, crude: China, 80%; South Africa, 7%; Netherlands, 5%; Hong Kong, 4%; and other, 4%. Silicon

carbide, grain: China, 52%; Brazil, 19%; Russia, 10%; Norway, 5%; and other, 14%. Metallic abrasives: Sweden,

32%; Canada, 24%; China, 13%; Germany, 9%; and other, 22%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Artificial corundum, crude 2818.10.1000 Free.

White, pink, ruby artificial

corundum, greater than 97.5%

aluminum oxide, grain 2818.10.2010 1.3% ad val.

Artificial corundum, not elsewhere

specified or included, fused

aluminum oxide, grain 2818.10.2090 1.3% ad val.

Silicon carbide, crude 2849.20.1000 Free.

Silicon carbide, grain 2849.20.2000 0.5% ad val.

Iron, pig iron, or steel granules 7205.10.0000 Free.

Prepared by Elizabeth Sangine [Contact Joyce A. Ober (703) 648–7717, job[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

ABRASIVES (MANUFACTURED)

Depletion Allowance: None.

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, China was the world’s leading producer of abrasive fused aluminum oxide and

abrasive silicon carbide. Imports, especially from China where operating costs were lower, continued to challenge

abrasives producers in the United States and Canada. In recent years, imports of abrasives from Hong Kong have

also increased. Foreign competition is expected to persist and continue to limit production in North America. The

average unit value of imports has increased every year since 2016 for regular fused aluminum oxide and crude silicon

carbide. The average unit values of imports of regular fused aluminum oxide and crude silicon carbide during the first

6 months of 2019 were 5% and 20% higher, respectively, than those in 2018 and 49% and 60% higher, respectively,

than those in 2017.

Abrasives consumption in the United States is greatly influenced by activity in the manufacturing sectors, in particular

the aerospace, automotive, furniture, housing, and steel industries. Steel grit can be reclaimed and used multiple

times. The use of reclaimed metallic abrasives increased potentially owing to rising surcharges on scrap and waste

disposal and increasing prices for new material.

One of the leading abrasives producers in the world divested its silicon carbide business to a private equity firm

during 2019.

World Production Capacity:

Fused aluminum oxide

Silicon carbide

2018 2019 2018 2019

United States 60,000 60,000 40,000 40,000

Argentina — — 5,000 5,000

Australia 50,000 50,000 — —

Austria 60,000 60,000 — —

Brazil 50,000 50,000 40,000 40,000

China 800,000 800,000 450,000 450,000

France 40,000 40,000 20,000 20,000

Germany 80,000 80,000 35,000 35,000

India 40,000 40,000 5,000 5,000

Japan 15,000 15,000 60,000 60,000

Mexico — — 45,000 45,000

Norway — — 80,000 80,000

Venezuela — — 30,000 30,000

Other countries 80,000 80,000 190,000 190,000

World total (rounded) 1,300,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 1,000,000

World Resources: Although domestic resources of raw materials for the production of fused aluminum oxide are

rather limited, adequate resources are available in the Western Hemisphere. Domestic resources are more than

adequate for the production of silicon carbide.

Substitutes: Natural and manufactured abrasives, such as garnet, emery, or metallic abrasives, can be substituted

for fused aluminum oxide and silicon carbide in various applications.

Estimated. E Net exporter. — Zero.

Production data for aluminum oxide are combined production data from the United States and Canada to avoid disclosing company proprietary

data.

Rounded to the nearest 5,000 tons to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Defined as imports – exports because production includes data from Canada; actual consumption is higher than that shown.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Defined as shipments + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

ALUMINUM

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, three companies operated seven primary aluminum smelters in six States.

Two smelters operated at full capacity and five smelters operated at reduced capacity throughout the year. One other

smelter remained on standby throughout the year. Domestic smelters were operating at about 60% of capacity of 1.79

million tons per year in 2019. Production increased for the second year in a row after declining each year since 2012

and was 22% more than that in 2018. Based on published prices, the value of primary aluminum production was

about $2.4 billion, 7% more than the value in 2018. The average annual U.S. market price declined by about 13%

from that in 2018, partially offsetting the value of the increased production. Transportation applications accounted for

39% of domestic consumption; in descending order of consumption, the remainder was used in packaging, 19%;

building, 14%; electrical, 9%; consumer durables, 8%; machinery, 8%; and other, 3%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Primary 1,587 818 741 891 1,100

Secondary (from old scrap) 1,470 1,570 1,590 1,570 1,500

Secondary (from new scrap) 1,910 2,010 2,050 2,140 1,900

Imports for consumption:

Crude and semimanufactures 4,560 5,410 6,220 5,540 3,700

Scrap 521 609 700 695 600

Exports:

Crude and semimanufactures 1,460 1,470 1,330 1,340 1,100

Scrap 1,550 1,350 1,570 1,760 1,900

Consumption, apparent

5,220 5,090 5,680 4,860 3,400

Supply, apparent

7,120 7,100 7,730 7,000 5,300

Price, ingot, average U.S. market (spot),

cents per pound 88.2 80.4 98.3 114.7 100

Stocks, yearend:

Aluminum industry 1,350 1,400 1,470 1,570 1,600

London Metal Exchange (LME), U.S. warehouses

507 362 254 186 65

Employment, number

31,000 31,900 31,700 31,600 31,600

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 41 53 59 49 22

Recycling: In 2019, aluminum recovered from purchased scrap in the United States was about 3.4 million tons, of

which about 56% came from new (manufacturing) scrap and 44% from old scrap (discarded aluminum products).

Aluminum recovered from old scrap was equivalent to about 45% of apparent consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 48%; Russia 9%; United Arab Emirates, 9%; China, 6%; and other, 28%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Aluminum, not alloyed:

Unwrought (in coils) 7601.10.3000 2.6% ad val.

Unwrought (other than aluminum alloys) 7601.10.6000 Free.

Aluminum alloys:

Unwrought (billet) 7601.20.9045 Free.

Aluminum waste and scrap:

Used beverage container scrap 7602.00.0030 Free.

Other 7602.00.0090 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Not applicable.

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: A 252,000-ton-per-year smelter in Hawesville, KY, shut down one potline with 50,000

tons per year of capacity in June for scheduled maintenance work. Another 50,000-ton-per-year potline at the

Hawesville smelter was shut down for maintenance work in October ahead of a scheduled shutdown. Both potlines

were scheduled to be restarted in 2020.

Prepared by E. Lee Bray [(703) 648–4979, lbray@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

ALUMINUM

In January, a 2-year power supply agreement took effect between a primary aluminum smelter in Mt. Holly, SC, and

its power provider. In March, a 7-year power supply agreement between the owner of the 130,000-metric-ton-per-year

Massena, NY, smelter and its power provider was signed. In September, workers represented by the United

Steelworkers union ratified a 4-year contract covering about 1,700 employees, most of whom were located at a

269,000-metric-ton-per-year smelter in Evansville, IN, the smelter in Massena, NY, and a rolling mill in Gum Springs,

AR. The new contract was retroactive to May 15 when the prior contract expired, and production was not disrupted

during the negotiations.

In January, the U.S. Department of the Treasury lifted sanctions that were imposed against a Russian producer of

aluminum, alumina, and bauxite in April 2018 in response to activities of the Government of Russia. Prior to the

sanctions being lifted, a winddown period was granted to companies with contracts with the sanctioned company. The

winddown period was extended several times until the sanctions were lifted and deliveries to consumers in the United

States were not disrupted.

After the United States, Canada, and Mexico reached an agreement on trade terms, Presidential Proclamation 9893,

issued in May 2019, removed the 10% ad valorem tariff on imports of aluminum from Canada and Mexico. The tariff

on aluminum imports for Canada and Mexico was imposed under the authority of Section 232 of the Trade Expansion

Act of 1962 in 2018. Canada and Mexico agreed to remove retaliatory measures that were imposed on United States

products. Under the agreement, a quota on aluminum imports was not imposed, but if imports increased dramatically

compared with historical volumes, the United States reserved the right to reimpose the tariff and Canada and Mexico

reserved the right to reimpose retaliatory measures. Aluminum imports from all countries except Argentina, Australia,

Canada, and Mexico remained subject to the 10% ad valorem tariff as of early December.

On October 22, the U.S. Department of Commerce announced its final determination in an antidumping investigation

of imports of aluminum wire from China, which affirmed the preliminary finding announced May 30. The finding

determined that aluminum cable and wire from China was sold below fair market value and antidumping rates of duty

ranging from 58.51% to 63.47% were assigned.

World Smelter Production and Capacity: Capacity data for China in 2018 was revised based on Government data.

Production Yearend capacity

2018 2019

United States 891 1,100 1,790 1,790

Australia 1,580 1,600 1,720 1,720

Bahrain 1,010 1,400 1,050 1,540

Canada 2,920 2,900 3,270 3,270

China 35,800 36,000 44,000 44,400

Iceland 885 850 890 890

India 3,680 3,700 4,060 4,060

Norway

1,300 1,300 1,430 1,430

Russia 3,630 3,600 3,900 3,900

United Arab Emirates 2,640 2,700 2,700 2,700

Other countries 9,260 9,200 12,200 12,200

World total (rounded) 63,600 64,000 77,000 77,900

World Resources: Global resources of bauxite are estimated to be between 55 billion to 75 billion tons and are

sufficient to meet world demand for metal well into the future.

Substitutes: Composites can substitute for aluminum in aircraft fuselages and wings. Glass, paper, plastics, and

steel can substitute for aluminum in packaging. Composites, magnesium, steel, and titanium can substitute for

aluminum in ground transportation uses. Composites, steel, vinyl, and wood can substitute for aluminum in

construction. Copper can replace aluminum in electrical and heat-exchange applications.

Estimated.

See also Bauxite and Alumina.

Defined as domestic primary metal production + recovery from old aluminum scrap + net import reliance; excludes imported scrap.

Defined as domestic primary metal production + recovery from all aluminum scrap + net import reliance; excludes imported scrap.

Includes aluminum alloy.

Alumina and aluminum production workers (North American Industry Classification System—3313). Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of

Labor Statistics.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

ANTIMONY

(Data in metric tons of antimony content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, no marketable antimony was mined in the United States. A mine in Nevada

that had extracted about 800 tons of stibnite ore from 2013 through 2014 was placed on care-and-maintenance status

in 2015 and had no reported production in 2019. Primary antimony metal and oxide were produced by one company

in Montana using imported feedstock. Secondary antimony production was derived mostly from antimonial lead

recovered from spent lead-acid batteries. The estimated value of secondary antimony produced in 2019, based on

the average New York dealer price for antimony, was about $34 million. Recycling supplied about 14% of estimated

domestic consumption, and the remainder came mostly from imports. The value of antimony consumption in 2019,

based on the average New York dealer price, was about $234 million. The estimated distribution of domestic primary

antimony consumption was as follows: nonmetal products, including ceramics and glass and rubber products, 22%;

flame retardants, 40%; and metal products, including antimonial lead and ammunition, 39%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016

2017

2018

2019

Production:

Mine (recoverable antimony) — — — — —

Smelter:

Primary 645 664 621 331 370

Secondary 3,740 3,810

3,800

4,000 4,000

Imports for consumption:

Ore and concentrates 308 119 61 96 140

Oxide 16,700 16,100 17,900 19,200 17,000

Unwrought, powder, waste and scrap

5,790 7,150 6,830 6,500 7,200

Exports:

Ore and concentrates

31 12 46 38 10

Oxide 1,760 1,330 1,600 1,750 1,500

Unwrought, powder, waste and scrap

1,440 623 653 506 280

Consumption, apparent

23,500 28,500 28,700 28,400 27,000

Price, metal, average, dollars per pound

3.27 3.35 3.98 3.88 3.90

Stocks, yearend 11,100 8,360 6,540 6,080 6,000

Employment, plant, number (yearend)

27 27 27 27 27

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 81 84 85 84 84

Recycling: The bulk of secondary antimony is recovered at secondary lead smelters as antimonial lead, most of

which was generated by, and then consumed by, the lead-acid battery industry.

Import Sources (2015–18): Metal: China, 52%; India, 20%; Vietnam, 8%; United Kingdom, 6%; and other, 14%. Ore

and concentrate: Italy, 76%; China, 17%; Mexico, 4%; Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1%; and other, 2%. Oxide: China,

64%; Belgium, 10%; Thailand, 10%; Bolivia, 7%; and other, 9%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Ore and concentrates 2617.10.0000 Free.

Antimony oxide 2825.80.0000 Free.

Antimony and articles thereof:

Unwrought antimony; powder 8110.10.0000 Free.

Waste and scrap 8110.20.0000 Free.

Other 8110.90.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile:

Antimony was added to the National Defense Stockpile in December 2018.

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Antimony 73.5 1,100 — 1,100 —

Prepared by Kateryna Klochko [(703) 648–4977, [email protected]v]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

ANTIMONY

Events, Trends, and Issues: One company operated a smelter in Montana that produced antimony metal and oxides

from imported intermediate products (antimony oxide and sodium antimonate) primarily from a smelter in Mexico that

processed concentrates from mines in Australia and Mexico.

China continued to be the leading global antimony producer in 2019 and accounted for more than 60% of global mine

production. Beginning in 2018, many large-scale producers reduced production, and many small-scale producers

were put on care-and-maintenance status in response to stricter environmental standards from Provincial and

National Governments. In 2019, producers in Guizhou, Hunan, and Yunnan Provinces maintained a steady

production rate after their smelters completed upgrades to meet the environmental standards. However, it was

reported some mines had begun stockpiling concentrates, which lead to the suspension of operations at several

smelters in Lengshuijiang area, Hunan Province, in August 2019. In September 2019, one of China’s largest mining

and metal-producing state-owned companies was the only bidder on the inventory of 18,600 tons of antimony and

rare earths from the defunct Fanya Metal Exchange.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Pakistan were revised based on Government reports.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — —

60,000

Australia 2,170 2,000

140,000

Bolivia 3,110 3,000 310,000

Burma 2,640 3,000 NA

China 89,600 100,000 480,000

Ecuador 50 50 NA

Guatemala 25 25 NA

Honduras 12 10 NA

Iran 600 600 NA

Kazakhstan 300 300 NA

Kyrgyzstan 370 400 NA

Laos 300 300 NA

Mexico 260 300 18,000

Pakistan 28 30 26,000

Russia (recoverable) 30,000 30,000 350,000

Tajikistan 15,200 16,000 50,000

Turkey 2,400 3,000 100,000

Vietnam 240 240 NA

World total (rounded) 147,000 160,000 1,500,000

World Resources: U.S. resources of antimony are mainly in Alaska, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada. Principal

identified world resources are in Australia, Bolivia, China, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, and Tajikistan. Additional

antimony resources may occur in Mississippi Valley-type lead deposits in the Eastern United States.

Substitutes: Selected organic compounds and hydrated aluminum oxide are substitutes as flame retardants.

Chromium, tin, titanium, zinc, and zirconium compounds substitute for antimony chemicals in enamels, paint, and

pigments. Combinations of calcium, copper, selenium, sulfur, and tin are substitutes for alloys in lead-acid batteries.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Gross weight.

Defined as primary production + secondary production from old scrap + net import reliance.

New York dealer price for 99.65% metal, cost, insurance, freight U.S. ports. Source: Platts Metal Week.

Defined as imports of antimony in oxide, unwrought metal, powder, waste and scrap – exports of antimony in oxide, unwrought metal, powder,

waste and scrap + adjustments for industry stock changes.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Company-reported probable reserves for the Stibnite Gold Project in Idaho.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 64,300 tons.

ARSENIC

(Data in metric tons of arsenic content

unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Arsenic trioxide and primary arsenic metal have not been produced in the United

States since 1985. The principal use for arsenic trioxide was for the production of arsenic acid used in the formulation

of chromated copper arsenide (CCA) preservatives for the pressure treating of lumber used primarily in nonresidential

applications. Three companies produced CCA preservatives in the United States in 2019. The grids in lead-acid

storage batteries were strengthened by the addition of arsenic metal. Arsenic metal was also used as an antifriction

additive for bearings, to harden lead shot, and in clip-on wheel weights. Arsenic compounds were used in herbicides

and insecticides. High-purity arsenic (99.9999%) was used to produce gallium-arsenide (GaAs) semiconductors for

solar cells, space research, and telecommunications. Arsenic also was used for germanium-arsenide-selenide

specialty optical materials. Indium-gallium-arsenide (InGaAs) was used for short-wave infrared technology. The value

of arsenic compounds and metal imported domestically in 2019 was estimated to be about $7.2 million. Given that

arsenic metal has not been produced domestically since 1985, it is likely that only a small portion of the material

reported by the U.S. Census Bureau as arsenic exports was pure arsenic metal, and most of the material that has

been reported under this category reflects the gross weight of alloys, compounds, residues, scrap, and waste

containing arsenic. Therefore, the estimated consumption reported under salient U.S. statistics reflects only imports of

arsenic products.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Imports for consumption:

Arsenic metal 514 793 942 929 400

Compounds 5,920 5,320 5,980 5,540 7,000

Exports, all forms of arsenic (gross weight)

1,670 1,760 698 107 20

Estimated consumption, all forms of arsenic

6,430 6,120 6,920 6,470 7,400

Value, dollars per kilogram, average

Arsenic metal (China) 1.85 1.89 1.56 1.43 2.10

Trioxide (China) 0.45 0.46 0.45 0.44 0.44

Trioxide (Morocco) 0.64 0.68 0.68 0.75 0.77

Net import reliance

as a percentage of.

estimated consumption, all forms of arsenic 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Arsenic metal was contained in new scrap recycled during GaAs semiconductor manufacturing. Arsenic-

containing process water was internally recycled at wood treatment plants where CCA was used. Although scrap

electronic circuit boards, relays, and switches may contain arsenic, no arsenic was known to have been recovered

during the recycling process to recover other contained metals. No arsenic was recovered domestically from arsenic-

containing residues and dusts generated at nonferrous smelters in the United States.

Import Sources (2015–18): Arsenic metal: China, 93%; Japan, 4%; Hong Kong, 3%, and other, <1%. Arsenic

trioxide: China, 50%; Morocco, 47%; Belgium, 2%; and other, 1%. All forms of arsenic: China, 55%; Morocco, 42%;

Belgium, 2%; other, 1%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Arsenic metal 2804.80.0000 Free.

Arsenic acid 2811.19.1000 2.3% ad val.

Arsenic trioxide 2811.29.1000 Free.

Arsenic sulfide 2813.90.1000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Micheal W. George [(703) 648–4962, mg[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

ARSENIC

Events, Trends, and Issues: China and Morocco continued to be the leading global producers of arsenic trioxide,

accounting for about 90% of estimated world production and supplied almost all of United States imports of arsenic

trioxide in 2019. China was the leading world producer of arsenic metal and supplied about 90% of United States

arsenic metal imports in 2019.

High-purity (99.9999%) arsenic metal was used to produce GaAs, indium-arsenide, and InGaAs semiconductors that

were used in biomedical, communications, computer, electronics, and photovoltaic applications. Almost one-half of

global GaAs wafer production took place in China. See the Gallium chapter for additional details.

World Production and Reserves (gross weight):

Production

e, 6

Reserves

(arsenic trioxide)

2018 2019

United States — —

Belgium 1,000 1,000 World reserves data are

Bolivia 40 40 unavailable but are thought to be

China 24,000 24,000 more than 20 times world production.

Iran 110 110

Japan 45 40

Morocco 6,000 6,000

Namibia 700 700

Russia 1,500 1,500

World total (rounded) 33,400 33,000

World Resources: Arsenic may be obtained from copper, gold, and lead smelter flue dust, as well as from roasting

arsenopyrite, the most abundant ore mineral of arsenic. Arsenic has been recovered from orpiment and realgar in

China, Peru, and the Philippines; has been recovered from copper-gold ores in Chile; and was associated with gold

occurrences in Canada. Orpiment and realgar from gold mines in Sichuan Province, China, were stockpiled for later

recovery of arsenic. Arsenic also may be recovered from enargite, a copper mineral. Arsenic trioxide was produced at

the hydrometallurgical complex of Guemassa, near Marrakech, Morocco, from cobalt arsenide ore from the Bou-

Azzer Mine.

Substitutes: Substitutes for CCA in wood treatment include alkaline copper quaternary, ammoniacal copper

quaternary, ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate, alkaline copper quaternary boron-based preservatives, copper azole,

copper citrate, and copper naphthenate. Treated wood substitutes include concrete, plastic composite material,

plasticized wood scrap, or steel. Silicon-based complementary metal-oxide semiconductor power amplifiers compete

with GaAs power amplifiers in midtier third generation cellular handsets. Indium phosphide components can be

substituted for GaAs-based infrared laser diodes in some specific-wavelength applications, and helium-neon lasers

compete with GaAs in visible laser diode applications. Silicon is the principal competitor with GaAs in solar-cell

applications. GaAs-based integrated circuits are used in many defense-related applications because of their unique

properties, and no effective substitutes exist for GaAs in these applications. GaAs in heterojunction bipolar transistors

is being replaced in some applications by silicon-germanium.

Estimated. — Zero.

Arsenic content of arsenic metal is 100%; arsenic content of arsenic compounds is calculated at 77.7% for arsenic acids, 60.7% for arsenic

sulfides, and 75.71% for arsenic trioxide.

Most of the materials reported to the U.S. Census Bureau as arsenic exports are thought to be arsenic-containing compounds (such as arsenic

acids, sulfides, and trioxides) or residues, waste, and scrap and was reported as gross weight.

Estimated to be the same as imports.

Calculated from U.S. Census Bureau import data.

Defined as imports - exports.

Includes calculated arsenic trioxide equivalent of output of elemental arsenic compounds other than arsenic trioxide; inclusion of such materials

would not duplicate reported arsenic trioxide production. Chile, Mexico, and Peru were thought to be significant producers of commercial-grade

arsenic trioxide but have reported no production in recent years.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

ASBESTOS

(Data in metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: The last U.S. producer of asbestos ceased operations in 2002 as a result of the

decline in domestic and international asbestos markets associated with health and liability issues. The United States

has since been wholly dependent on imports to meet manufacturing needs. In 2019, all of the asbestos minerals

imported into and used within the United States consisted of chrysotile and were shipped from Russia. Domestic

consumption of chrysotile in 2019 was estimated to be 100 tons, based on import data available through August.

Actual consumption may have been higher owing to companies drawing from stockpiles, but information regarding

industry stocks was unavailable. The chloralkali industry, which uses asbestos to manufacture semipermeable

diaphragms that prevent chlorine generated at the anode of an electrolytic cell from reacting with sodium hydroxide

generated at the cathode, accounted for 100% of asbestos consumption in 2019, based on bill of lading information

from a commercial trade database. In addition to asbestos minerals, a small, but unknown, quantity of asbestos was

imported within manufactured products, including brake blocks for use in the oil industry, rubber sheets for gaskets

used to create a chemical containment seal in the production of titanium dioxide, certain other types of preformed

gaskets, and some vehicle friction products.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Imports for consumption

325 747 332 681

100

Exports

— — — — —

Consumption, estimated

325 747 332 681 100

Price, average U.S. Customs value, dollars per ton 1,880 1,910 1,870 1,670 1,500

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

estimated consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Brazil, 96%; and Russia, 4%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Crocidolite 2524.10.0000 Free.

Amosite 2524.90.0010 Free.

Chrysotile:

Crudes 2524.90.0030 Free.

Milled fibers, group 3 grades 2524.90.0040 Free.

Milled fibers, group 4 and 5 grades 2524.90.0045 Free.

Other 2524.90.0055 Free.

Other, asbestos 2524.90.0060 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 10% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Consumption of asbestos in the United States (excluding asbestos contained within

imported manufactured products) has decreased during the past several decades, falling from a record high of

803,000 tons in 1973 to less than 775 tons in each year since 2013. From 2013 through 2018, consumption fluctuated

between 325 tons and roughly 775 tons, likely owing to stockpiling by companies in certain years, and averaged

about 550 t, less than 0.1% of peak consumption in the 1970s. This decline has taken place as a result of health and

liability issues associated with asbestos use, leading to the displacement of asbestos from traditional domestic

markets by substitutes, alternative materials, and new technology. The chloralkali industry is the only remaining

domestic consumer of asbestos in mineral form. Asbestos diaphragms are used in 11 chloralkali plants in the United

States and account for about one-third of domestic chlorine production.

Estimated worldwide consumption of asbestos minerals decreased from approximately 2 million tons in 2010 to

approximately 1 million tons in 2019. Asbestos-cement products, such as corrugated roofing tiles, pipes, and wall

panels, are expected to continue to be the leading global market for asbestos.

Prepared by Daniel M. Flanagan [(703) 648–7726, df[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

ASBESTOS

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a significant new use rule (SNUR) under Section 5 of the

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976. The regulation, which went into effect on June 24, prohibits discontinued uses

of asbestos from restarting without the EPA having an opportunity to evaluate each intended use for potential risks to

health and the environment and take any necessary regulatory action, which may include a ban. The SNUR requires

manufacturers to request approval before importing, manufacturing, or processing asbestos for adhesives, arc

chutes, beater-add gaskets, building materials (insulation, plastics, textured paints, etc.), cement products, coatings,

extruded sealant tape and other tape, filler for acetylene cylinders, friction materials (except brake blocks used in oil

drilling equipment and vehicle brakes and linings), high-grade electrical paper, millboard, missile liner, packings,

pipeline wrap, reinforced plastics, roofing felt, sealants, separators in fuel cells and batteries, vinyl-asbestos floor tile,

woven products, and any other applications that are not currently in use in the United States.

The only asbestos producer in Brazil suspended mining activities on February 11. A comprehensive national ban on

asbestos was enacted in November 2017, but the company had previously been allowed to continue operating owing

to a judicial injunction. As of the end of September, the company was awaiting a decision from the Supreme Federal

Court on a petition to restart mining for export purposes only.

At the former Mashaba Mine in Zimbabwe, which closed in 2007, a company began producing asbestos from tailings

and was working to dewater the mining shafts and procure equipment to restart underground production. At full

capacity, the mine was expected to produce 75,000 tons of asbestos per year. Asbestos was last produced in

Zimbabwe in 2013.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production Reserves

2018

2019

United States — — Small

Brazil

110,000 15,000 12,000,000

China

125,000 125,000 96,000,000

Kazakhstan 203,000 200,000 Large

Russia

710,000 750,000 110,000,000

Zimbabwe — 2,500 Large

World total (rounded) 1,150,000 1,100,000 Large

World Resources: Reliable evaluations of global asbestos resources have not been published recently, and the

available information is insufficient to make accurate estimates for many countries. However, world resources are

large and more than adequate to meet anticipated demand in the foreseeable future. Resources in the United States

are composed mostly of short-fiber asbestos for which use in asbestos-based products is more limited than long-fiber

asbestos.

Substitutes: Numerous materials substitute for asbestos. Substitutes include calcium silicate, carbon fiber, cellulose

fiber, ceramic fiber, glass fiber, steel fiber, wollastonite, and several organic fibers, such as aramid, polyethylene,

polypropylene, and polytetrafluoroethylene. Several nonfibrous minerals or rocks, such as perlite, serpentine, silica,

and talc, are also considered to be possible asbestos substitutes for products in which the reinforcement properties of

fibers are not required. Membrane cells and mercury cells are alternatives to asbestos diaphragms used in the

chloralkali industry.

Estimated. — Zero.

Additional imports were reported by the U.S. Census Bureau in some years, but bill of lading information from a commercial trade database

suggests that some shipments were misclassified.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, imports of asbestos minerals (chrysotile) totaled 100 tons through November 2019. Final 2019 imports may

differ significantly from the provided estimate because imports of chrysotile typically do not follow a predictable pattern throughout the year.

Exports of asbestos reported by the U.S. Census Bureau were 517 tons in 2015, 587 tons in 2016, 143 tons in 2017, 235 tons in 2018, and an

estimated 200 tons in 2019. These shipments likely consisted of materials misclassified as asbestos, reexports, and (or) waste products because

the United States no longer mines asbestos.

Assumed to equal imports. Actual consumption in each year may have been higher or lower owing to stockpiling by companies, but information

regarding industry stocks was unavailable.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

BARITE

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, domestic mine production increased by approximately 6%, to an estimated

390,000 tons valued at an estimated $44 million. Most of the production came from Nevada and a single mine in

Georgia. An estimated 2.5 million tons of barite (from domestic production and imports) was sold by crushers and

grinders operating in seven States. The United States is the world’s leading barite consumer, with more than 90% of

the barite sold in the United States used as a weighting agent in fluids used in the drilling of oil and natural gas wells.

The majority of Nevada crude barite was ground in Nevada and then sold to companies drilling in the Central and

Western United States. Offshore drilling operations in the Gulf of Mexico and onshore drilling operations in other

regions primarily used imported barite.

Barite also is used as a filler, extender, or weighting agent in products such as paints, plastics, and rubber. Some

specific applications include use in automobile brake and clutch pads, automobile paint primer for metal protection

and gloss, use as a weighting agent in rubber, and in the cement jacket around underwater petroleum pipelines. In

the metal-casting industry, barite is part of the mold-release compounds. Because barite significantly blocks x-ray and

gamma-ray emissions, it is used as aggregate in high-density concrete for radiation shielding around x-ray units in

hospitals, nuclear powerplants, and university nuclear research facilities. Ultrapure barite is used as a contrast

medium in x-ray and computed tomography examinations of the gastrointestinal tract.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Sold or used, mine 433 232 334 366 390

Ground and crushed

2,010 1,420 2,030 2,420 2,500

Imports for consumption

1,660 1,260 2,470 2,460 2,600

Exports

147 78 116 67 34

Consumption, apparent (crude and ground)

1,950 1,410 2,680 2,760 3,000

Estimated price, ground, average value,

dollars per ton, ex-works 194 187 179 176 180

Employment, mine and mill, number 458 300 350 440 440

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 78 84 88 87 87

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 58%; India, 17%; Morocco, 12%; Mexico, 11%; and other, 2%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Ground barite 2511.10.1000 Free.

Crude barite 2511.10.5000 $1.25 per metric ton.

Barium compounds:

Barium oxide, hydroxide, and peroxide 2816.40.2000 2% ad val.

Barium chloride 2827.39.4500 4.2% ad val.

Barium sulfate, precipitated 2833.27.0000 0.6% ad val.

Barium carbonate, precipitated 2836.60.0000 2.3% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Michele E. McRae [(703) 648–7743, mmcrae@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

BARITE

Events, Trends, and Issues: Although the U.S. monthly average count of active rigs dropped throughout 2019, sales

of ground barite were estimated to have increased slightly. Nearly one-half of sales were from plants in Texas,

reflecting increased domestic drilling activity, which has been concentrated in the Permian Basin in recent years.

Beginning in the 1980s, China emerged as the world’s leading producer of barite and the United States has been its

leading customer. Although that remains true, in recent years, owing partially to industry consolidation and increased

barite consumption in China, domestic consumers have diversified import sources. A higher percentage of United

States imports has been supplied by other leading exporting countries such as India and Morocco. This trend has

also apparently stimulated increased production and exports in other countries, particularly Laos and Mexico.

Beginning in 2018, the U.S. Census Bureau reported increased quantities of barite imports from Vietnam. However,

imports from Vietnam were more likely mined in Laos, where a new mine reportedly exported ore through the Port of

Cua Lo in Vietnam. Domestic grinding plants reported importing more than 100,000 tons of barite from Laos in 2018

and, in 2019, this quantity was estimated to have increased to approximately 300,000 tons.

Production increases in Mexico in recent years corresponded with increased truck and rail shipments to key drilling

areas in the Permian Basin. Most barite imports have been crude barite, which was processed at domestic grinding

plants but, in 2019, an increasing proportion of barite from Mexico was reportedly ground barite shipped to

warehouses or to onshore drilling sites.

World Mine Production and Reserves: In response to concerns about dwindling global reserves of 4.2-specific-

gravity barite used by the oil and gas drilling industry, the American Petroleum Institute issued an alternate

specification for 4.1-specific-gravity barite in 2010. This has likely stimulated exploration and expansion of global

barite resources. Estimated reserves data are included only if developed since the adoption of the 4.1-specific-gravity

standard. Reserves data for Pakistan were revised based on Government information.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 366 390 NA

China 2,900 2,900 36,000

India 2,390 2,200 51,000

Iran 490 490 24,000

Kazakhstan 620 620 85,000

Laos 90 420 NA

Mexico 380 400 NA

Morocco 940 1,100 NA

Pakistan 110 110 26,000

Russia 163 160 12,000

Turkey 245 250 35,000

Other countries 482 480 30,000

World total (rounded) 9,180 9,500 300,000

World Resources: In the United States, identified resources of barite are estimated to be 150 million tons, and

undiscovered resources contribute an additional 150 million tons. The world’s barite resources in all categories are

about 2 billion tons, but only about 740 million tons are identified resources. However, no known systematic

assessment of either U.S. or global barite resources has been conducted since the 1980s.

Substitutes: In the drilling mud market, alternatives to barite include celestite, ilmenite, iron ore, and synthetic

hematite that is manufactured in Germany. None of these substitutes, however, has had a major impact on the barite

drilling mud industry.

Estimated. NA Not available.

Imported and domestic barite, crushed and ground, sold or used by domestic grinding establishments.

Imports calculated from Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes 2511.10.1000, 2511.10.5000, and 2833.27.0000.

Exports calculated from Schedule B numbers 2511.10.1000 and 2833.27.0000.

Defined as sold or used by domestic mines + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

BAUXITE AND ALUMINA

(Data in thousand metric dry tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, the quantity of bauxite consumed was estimated to be 5.1 million tons, 30%

more than that reported in 2018, with an estimated value of about $162 million. About 73% of the bauxite was refined

by the Bayer process for alumina or aluminum hydroxide, and the remainder went to products such as abrasives,

cement, chemicals, proppants, refractories, and as a slag adjuster in steel mills. Two domestic Bayer-process

refineries with a combined alumina production capacity of 1.7 million tons per year produced an estimated 1.6 million

tons in 2019, slightly more than that in 2018. One other refinery with 2.3 million tons per year of capacity that had

been on care-and-maintenance status since 2016 was permanently shut down in December. About 66% of the

alumina produced went to primary aluminum smelters, and the remainder went to nonmetallurgical products, such as

abrasives, ceramics, chemicals, and refractories.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018

2019

Bauxite:

Production, mine W W W W W

Imports for consumption

11,500 6,050 4,360 4,200 5,100

Exports

21 40 29 17 20

Stocks, industry, yearend

1,500 880 880 600 300

Consumption:

Apparent

W W W W W

Reported 9,660 5,360 3,510 3,890 5,100

Price, average value, U.S. imports (f.a.s.),

dollars per ton 28 28 31 31 32

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption >75 >75 >75 >75 >75

Alumina:

Production, refinery

4,550 2,360 1,430 1,570 1,600

Imports for consumption

1,570 1,140 1,330 1,530 2,100

Exports

2,210 1,330 481 288 200

Stocks, industry, yearend

274 320 264 275 300

Consumption, apparent

3,920 2,130 2,340 2,800 3,500

Price, average value, U.S. imports (f.a.s.),

dollars per ton 400 362 486 592 500

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption E E 38 44 54

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Bauxite:

Jamaica, 51%; Brazil, 23%; Guinea, 10%; Guyana, 7%; and other, 9%.

Alumina:

Brazil, 39%; Australia, 31%; Jamaica, 9%; Canada, 5%; and other, 16%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Bauxite, calcined (refractory grade) 2606.00.0030 Free.

Bauxite, calcined (other) 2606.00.0060 Free.

Bauxite, crude dry (metallurgical grade) 2606.00.0090 Free.

Aluminum oxide (alumina) 2818.20.0000 Free.

Aluminum hydroxide 2818.30.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, two domestic alumina refineries produced alumina from imported bauxite. A

500,000-ton-per-year alumina refinery in Burnside, LA, produced specialty-grade alumina. A 1.2-million-ton-per-year

alumina refinery in Gramercy, LA, produced alumina principally for aluminum smelting. A project at the Gramercy

refinery was adding another production line for specialty-grade alumina but the amount of additional capacity and a

projected completion date were not announced. A 2.3-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery in Point Comfort, TX, was

permanently shut down in December. The average prices free alongside ship (f.a.s.) for U.S. imports for consumption

of crude-dry bauxite and metallurgical-grade alumina during the first 8 months of 2019 were $32 per ton, slightly more

than that of the same period in 2018, and $497 per ton, 12% lower than that in the same period of 2018, respectively.

Prepared by E. Lee Bray [(703) 648–4979, lbray@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

BAUXITE AND ALUMINA

In April, the Government of Malaysia ended its ban on bauxite mining that was imposed in January 2016 because of

concerns about pollution from mines and uncovered stockpiles at ports. During the mining ban, exports of stockpiled

bauxite were allowed and media sources reported that some mines continued illegal mining. In May, a court in Brazil

lifted restrictions on production at a 6.3-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery. In February 2018, the Government of

Brazil ordered the alumina refinery and a nearby 10-million-ton-per-year bauxite mine to shut down one-half of their

capacities, citing concerns that leaks from disposal areas may have taken place after heavy rainfall in the area. The

mine and refinery were ramped up to their full capacities by yearend. In March, a new 22.8-million-ton-per-year

bauxite mine was commissioned in Queensland, Australia. In April, a new 2-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery in

the United Arab Emirates was commissioned. In August, a new 12-million-ton-per-year bauxite mine in Guinea was

commissioned and started exporting bauxite to the alumina refinery in the United Arab Emirates for which it would be

the principal bauxite source. In October, a 1.65-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery in Jamaica shut down for a

modernization project that would take about 2 years to complete.

In January, the U.S. Department of the Treasury lifted sanctions that were imposed in April 2018 against several

Russian individuals and businesses in response to activities of the Government of Russia. Among the designated

companies was a producer of bauxite, alumina, and aluminum. Prior to the sanctions being lifted, a winddown period

was granted to companies with contracts with the sanctioned company. The winddown period was extended several

times until the sanctions were lifted and deliveries to consumers in the United States were not disrupted.

World Alumina Refinery and Bauxite Mine Production and Bauxite Reserves:

Alumina

Bauxite Reserves

2018 2019

United States 1,570 1,600 W W 20,000

Australia 20,400 20,000 86,400 100,000

6,000,000

Brazil 8,100 8,900 29,000 29,000 2,600,000

Canada 1,570 1,500 — — —

China 72,500 73,000 79,000 75,000 1,000,000

Guinea 180 300 57,000 82,000 7,400,000

India 6,430 6,700 23,000 26,000 660,000

Indonesia 1,000 1,000 11,000 16,000 1,200,000

Jamaica 2,480 2,100 10,100 8,900 2,000,000

Malaysia — — 500 900 110,000

Russia 2,760 2,700 5,650 5,400 500,000

Saudi Arabia 1,770 1,800 3,890 4,100 200,000

Vietnam 1,310 1,300 4,100 4,500 3,700,000

Other countries 11,400 12,000 17,000 15,000 5,000,000

World total (rounded) 131,000 130,000

327,000

370,000 30,000,000

World Resources: Bauxite resources are estimated to be 55 billion to 75 billion tons, in Africa (32%), Oceania (23%),

South America and the Caribbean (21%), Asia (18%), and elsewhere (6%). Domestic resources of bauxite are

inadequate to meet long-term U.S. demand, but the United States and most other major aluminum-producing

countries have essentially inexhaustible subeconomic resources of aluminum in materials other than bauxite.

Substitutes: Bauxite is the only raw material used in the production of alumina on a commercial scale in the United

States. Although currently not economically competitive with bauxite, vast resources of clay are technically feasible

sources of alumina. Other raw materials, such as alunite, anorthosite, coal wastes, and oil shales, offer additional

potential alumina sources. Synthetic mullite, produced from kaolin, bauxitic kaolin, kyanite, and sillimanite, substitutes

for bauxite-based refractories. Silicon carbide and alumina-zirconia can substitute for abrasives but cost more.

Estimated. E Net exporter. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.

See also Aluminum. As a general rule, 4 tons of dried bauxite is required to produce 2 tons of alumina, which, in turn, produces 1 ton of aluminum.

Includes all forms of bauxite, expressed as dry equivalent weights.

Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Calcined equivalent weights.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 2.2 billion tons.

Excludes U.S. production.

BERYLLIUM

(Data in metric tons of beryllium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: One company in Utah mined bertrandite ore and converted it, along with imported

beryl, into beryllium hydroxide. Some of the beryllium hydroxide was shipped to the company’s plant in Ohio, where it

was converted into metal, oxide, and downstream beryllium-copper master alloy, and some was sold. Based on the

estimated unit value for beryllium in imported beryllium-copper master alloy, beryllium apparent consumption of 180

tons was valued at about $113 million. Based on sales revenues, approximately 21% of beryllium products were used

in industrial components; 20% in aerospace and defense applications; 14% each in automotive electronics, consumer

electronics, and telecommunications infrastructure; 9% in energy applications; 1% in semiconductor applications; and

7% in other applications. Beryllium alloy strip and bulk products, the most common forms of processed beryllium,

were used in all application areas. The majority of unalloyed beryllium metal and beryllium composite products were

used in defense and scientific applications.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, mine shipments 205 155 150 165 170

Imports for consumption

66 68 60 67 45

Exports

29 34 38 30 40

Shipments from Government stockpile

1 3 2 — —

Consumption:

Apparent

233 182 179 202 180

Reported, ore 220 160 160 170 170

Unit value, annual average, beryllium-copper master

alloy, dollars per kilogram contained beryllium

490 510 640 590 660

Stocks, ore, consumer, yearend 25 35 30 30 30

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption 12 15 16 18 3

Recycling: Beryllium was recovered from new scrap generated during the manufacture of beryllium products and

from old scrap. Detailed data on the quantities of beryllium recycled are not available but may account for as much as

20% to 25% of total beryllium consumption. The leading U.S. beryllium producer established a comprehensive

recycling program for all of its beryllium products, recovering approximately 40% of the beryllium content of the new

and old beryllium alloy scrap.

Import Sources (2015–18):

Kazakhstan, 39%; Japan, 15%; Brazil, 13%; United Kingdom, 5%; and other, 28%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Beryllium ores and concentrates 2617.90.0030 Free.

Beryllium oxide and hydroxide 2825.90.1000 3.7% ad val.

Beryllium-copper master alloy 7405.00.6030 Free.

Beryllium-copper plates, sheets, and strip:

Thickness of 5 millimeters (mm) or more 7409.90.1030 3.0% ad val.

Thickness of less than 5 mm:

Width of 500 mm or more 7409.90.5030 1.7% ad val.

Width of less than 500 mm 7409.90.9030 3.0% ad val.

Beryllium:

Unwrought, including powders 8112.12.0000 8.5% ad val.

Waste and scrap 8112.13.0000 Free.

Other 8112.19.0000 5.5% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile:

The Defense Logistics Agency Strategic Materials had a goal of retaining 47 tons of

beryllium metal in the National Defense Stockpile.

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Beryl ore (gross weight) 1 — — — —

Metal 67 — 5 — 7

Structured powder 7 — — — —

Prepared by Brian W. Jaskula [(703) 648–4908, bjaskula@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

BERYLLIUM

Events, Trends, and Issues: Apparent consumption of beryllium-based products was estimated to have decreased

by about 11% in 2019 from that of 2018 owing primarily to a 33% decrease in beryllium imports and a 33% increase

in beryllium exports. Imported beryl concentrate has decreased substantially since 2015. Domestic beryllium

production and consumption in 2019 were estimated to be close to that of 2018. During the first 6 months of 2019, the

leading U.S. beryllium producer reported that net sales of its beryllium alloy strip and bulk products and beryllium

metal and composite products were 6% higher than those during the first 6 months of 2018. Value-added sales of

beryllium products increased primarily in the aerospace and defense, consumer electronics, energy, and

telecommunications markets.

Because of the toxic nature of beryllium, various international, national, and State guidelines and regulations have

been established regarding beryllium in air, water, and other media. Industry is required to carefully control the

quantity of beryllium dust, fumes, and mists in the workplace.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for the United States were revised based on updated company

information.

Mine production

8, 9

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 165 170 The United States has very little beryl that can be

Brazil

3 3 economically hand sorted from pegmatite deposits.

China

48 70 The Spor Mountain area in Utah, an epithermal

Madagascar

6 1 deposit, contains a large bertrandite resource, which

Mozambique

16 15 is being mined. Proven and probable bertrandite

Nigeria

4 1 reserves in Utah total about 20,000 tons of contained

Rwanda

1 1 beryllium. World beryllium reserves are not available.

World total (rounded) 240 260

World Resources: The world’s identified resources of beryllium have been estimated to be more than 100,000 tons.

About 60% of these resources are in the United States; by size, the Spor Mountain area in Utah, the McCullough

Butte area in Nevada, the Black Hills area in South Dakota, the Sierra Blanca area in Texas, the Seward Peninsula in

Alaska, and the Gold Hill area in Utah account for most of the total.

Substitutes: Because the cost of beryllium is high compared with that of other materials, it is used in applications in

which its properties are crucial. In some applications, certain metal matrix or organic composites, high-strength

grades of aluminum, pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide, steel, or titanium may be substituted for beryllium metal or

beryllium composites. Copper alloys containing nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements or phosphor

bronze alloys (copper-tin-phosphorus) may be substituted for beryllium-copper alloys, but these substitutions can

result in substantially reduced performance. Aluminum nitride or boron nitride may be substituted for beryllium oxide.

Estimated. — Zero.

Includes estimated beryllium content of imported ores and concentrates, oxide and hydroxide, unwrought metal (including powders), beryllium

articles, waste and scrap, beryllium-copper master alloy, and beryllium-copper plates, sheets, and strip.

Includes estimated beryllium content of exported unwrought metal (including powders), beryllium articles, and waste and scrap.

Change in total inventory level from prior yearend inventory.

Defined as production + net import reliance.

Calculated from gross weight and customs value of imports; beryllium content estimated to be 4%. Rounded to two significant figures.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.

See Appendix B for definitions.

In addition to the countries listed, Kazakhstan, Portugal, and Uganda may have produced beryl ore, but available information was inadequate to

make reliable estimates of output. Other nations that produced gemstone beryl ore may also have produced some industrial beryl ore.

Based on a beryllium content of 4% from bertrandite and beryl sources.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

BISMUTH

(Data in metric tons gross weight unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: The United States ceased production of primary refined bismuth in 1997 and is

highly import dependent for its supply. Bismuth is contained in some lead ores mined domestically. However, the last

domestic primary lead smelter closed at yearend 2013; since then all lead concentrates have been exported for

smelting.

About two-thirds of domestic bismuth consumption was for chemicals used in cosmetic, industrial, laboratory, and

pharmaceutical applications. Bismuth use in pharmaceuticals included bismuth salicylate (the active ingredient in

over-the-counter stomach remedies) and other compounds used to treat burns, intestinal disorders, and stomach

ulcers. Bismuth is also used in the manufacture of ceramic glazes, crystalware, and pearlescent pigments.

Bismuth has a wide variety of metallurgical applications, including use as an additive to enhance metallurgical quality

in the foundry industry and as a nontoxic replacement for lead in brass, free-machining steels, and solders. The use

of bismuth in brass for pipe fittings, fixtures, and water meters increased after 2014 when the definition of “lead-free”

under the Safe Drinking Water Act was modified to reduce the maximum lead content of “lead free” pipes and

plumbing fixtures to 0.25% from 8%. The melting point of bismuth is relatively low at 271 °C, and it is an important

component of various fusible alloys, some of which have melting points below that of boiling water. These bismuth-

containing alloys can be used in holding devices for grinding optical lenses, as a temporary filler to prevent damage to

tubes in bending operations, as a triggering mechanism for fire sprinklers, and in other applications in which a low

melting point is ideal. Bismuth-tellurium-oxide alloy film paste is used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Refinery — — — — —

Secondary (scrap)

80 80 80 80 80

Imports for consumption, metal, alloys, and scrap 1,950 2,190 2,820 2,510 2,400

Exports, metal, alloys, and scrap 519 431 392 653 580

Consumption:

Apparent

1,490 1,780 2,520 1,900 1,900

Reported 621 710 756 566 600

Price, average, dollars per pound

6.43 4.53 4.93 4.64 3.40

Stocks, yearend, consumer 456 512 494 533 500

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 95 96 97 96 96

Recycling: Bismuth-containing alloy scrap was recycled and thought to compose less than 5% of U.S. bismuth

apparent consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 76%; Belgium, 6%; Mexico, 6%; Republic of Korea, 5%; and other, 7%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Bismuth and articles thereof, including waste

and scrap 8106.00.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Robert M. Callaghan [Contact Adam Merrill, (703) 648–7715, amer[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

BISMUTH

Events, Trends, and Issues: Bismuth prices continued a significant downward trend that began in 2014, when the

annual average domestic dealer price was $11.14 per pound. Bismuth was one of the metals held in significant

quantities by the defunct Fanya Nonferrous Metals Exchange in China, which closed in 2015. In 2019, sales of the

exchange’s assets began, and though bismuth was not among the limited initial offerings the potential sale was a

factor on the price of bismuth throughout the year.

In 2019, a stable bismuth-based perovskite oxide semiconductor was discovered that could potentially be used in

thin-film solar technology. The discovery was the product of a National Science Foundation grant for development of

high-performance semiconductors that could replace lead-halide perovskites in applications such as perovskite solar

cells, the commercial production of which was not feasible because of stability issues as well as the toxicity of the

lead-based perovskite material. Additional research to improve the photovoltaic efficiency of the bismuth-based

perovskites is needed before their use would be feasible.

World Refinery Production and Reserves: Available information was inadequate to make reliable estimates for

mine production and reserves data.

Refinery production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — — Quantitative estimates of reserves are not

Bulgaria 50 50 available.

Canada 25 25

China 14,000 14,000

Japan 571 540

Kazakhstan 290 270

Korea, Republic of 900 900

Laos 3,010 3,000

Mexico 333 400

World total (rounded) 19,200 19,000

World Resources: Bismuth ranks 65th in elemental abundance in the Earth’s continental crust, at an estimated 85

parts per billion by weight, constituting much less than 0.001%. World reserves of bismuth are usually estimated

based on the bismuth content of lead resources because bismuth production is most often a byproduct of processing

lead ores. In China and Vietnam, bismuth production is a byproduct or coproduct of tungsten and other metal ore

processing. Bismuth minerals rarely occur in sufficient quantities to be mined as principal products; the Tasna Mine in

Bolivia and a mine in China are the only mines where bismuth has been the primary product. The Tasna Mine in

Bolivia has been inactive since 1996.

Substitutes: Bismuth compounds can be replaced in pharmaceutical applications by alumina, antibiotics, calcium

carbonate, and magnesia. Titanium dioxide-coated mica flakes and fish-scale extracts are substitutes in pigment

uses. Cadmium, indium, lead, and tin can partially replace bismuth in low-temperature solders. Resins can replace

bismuth alloys for holding metal shapes during machining, and glycerine-filled glass bulbs can replace bismuth alloys

in triggering devices for fire sprinklers. Free-machining alloys can contain lead, selenium, or tellurium as a

replacement for bismuth. Bismuth is an environmentally friendly substitute for lead in plumbing and many other

applications, including fishing weights, hunting ammunition, lubricating greases, and soldering alloys.

Estimated. — Zero.

Defined as secondary production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Price in 2015 is based on New York dealer price for 99.99%-purity metal in minimum lots of 1 ton; source: Platts Metals Week. Prices in 2016–19

are based on 99.99%-purity metal at warehouse (Rotterdam) in minimum lots of 1 ton; source: American Metal Market (Fastmarkets AMM).

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

BORON

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Two companies in southern California produced borates in 2019, and most of the

boron products consumed in the United States were manufactured domestically. U.S. boron production and

consumption data were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. The leading boron producer mined

borate ores, which contain the minerals kernite, tincal, and ulexite, by open pit methods and operated associated

compound plants. Kernite was used to produce boric acid, tincal was used to produce sodium borate, and ulexite was

used as a primary ingredient in the manufacture of a variety of specialty glasses and ceramics. A second company

produced borates from brines extracted through solution-mining techniques. Boron minerals and chemicals were

principally consumed in the North Central United States and the Eastern United States. In 2019, the glass and

ceramics industries remained the leading domestic users of boron products, accounting for an estimated 80% of total

borates consumption. Boron also was used as a component in abrasives, cleaning products, insecticides, and

insulation and in the production of semiconductors.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production W W W W W

Imports for consumption:

Refined borax 136 173 158 133 150

Boric acid 40 46 40 51 50

Colemanite (calcium borates) 35 35 58 73 40

Ulexite (sodium borates) 70 43 24 34 35

Exports:

Boric acid 195 237 227 260 270

Refined borax 528 581 572 610 590

Consumption, apparent

W W W W W

Price, average value of imports

Cost, insurance, and freight, dollars per ton 327 352 392 404 377

Employment, number 1,380 1,340 1,300 1,350 1,350

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption E E E E E

Recycling: Insignificant.

Import Sources (2015–18): All forms: Turkey, 80%; Bolivia, 13%; Chile, 3%; and other, 4%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Natural borates:

Sodium (ulexite) 2528.00.0005 Free.

Calcium (colemanite) 2528.00.0010 Free.

Boric acids 2810.00.0000 1.5% ad val.

Borates:

Refined borax:

Anhydrous 2840.11.0000 0.3% ad val.

Non-anhydrous 2840.19.0000 0.1% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: Borax, 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Amanda S. Brioche [(703) 648–7747, abrioche@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

BORON

Events, Trends, and Issues: Elemental boron is a metalloid with limited commercial applications. Although the term

“boron” is commonly referenced, it does not occur in nature in an elemental state. Boron combines with oxygen and

other elements to form boric acid, or inorganic salts called borates. Boron compounds, chiefly borates, are

commercially important; therefore, boron products are priced and sold based on their boric oxide (B

) content,

varying by ore and compound and by the absence or presence of calcium and sodium. The four borate minerals—

colemanite, kernite, tincal, and ulexite—account for 90% of the borate minerals used by industry worldwide. Although

borates were used in more than 300 applications, more than three-quarters of world consumption was used in

ceramics, detergents, fertilizers, and glass.

China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Netherlands are the countries that imported the largest quantities of refined

borates from the United States in 2019. Because China has low-grade boron reserves and demand for boron is

anticipated to rise in that country, imports to China from Chile, Russia, Turkey, and the United States were expected

to remain steady during the next several years.

Continued investment in new borate refineries and the continued rise in demand were expected to fuel growth in

world production for the next few years. Two Australia-based mine developers confirmed that production of high-

quality boron products is possible from their projects in California and Nevada. These companies have the potential to

become substantial boron producers when they are fully developed. Both companies expect production to begin in

2021, with construction beginning at one site by late 2019.

World Production and Reserves: Reserves for Turkey were updated based on company information.

Production—All forms Reserves

2018 2019

United States W W 40,000

Argentina, crude ore 200 100 NA

Bolivia, ulexite 150 210 NA

Chile, ulexite 600 400 35,000

China, boric oxide equivalent 75 250 24,000

Germany, compounds 143 140 NA

Kazakhstan, unspecified 500 — NA

Peru, crude borates 101 100 4,000

Russia, datolite ore 80 80 40,000

Turkey, refined borates 2,000 2,500 1,100,000

World total

XX XX XX

World Resources: Deposits of borates are associated with volcanic activity and arid climates, with the largest

economically viable deposits in the Mojave Desert of the United States, the Alpide belt in southern Asia, and the

Andean belt of South America. U.S. deposits consist primarily of tincal, kernite, and borates contained in brines, and

to a lesser extent, ulexite and colemanite. About 70% of all deposits in Turkey are colemanite, primarily used in the

production of heat-resistant glass. At current levels of consumption, world resources are adequate for the foreseeable

future.

Substitutes: The substitution of other materials for boron is possible in detergents, enamels, insulation, and soaps.

Sodium percarbonate can replace borates in detergents and requires lower temperatures to undergo hydrolysis,

which is an environmental consideration. Some enamels can use other glass-producing substances, such as

phosphates. Insulation substitutes include cellulose, foams, and mineral wools. In soaps, sodium and potassium salts

of fatty acids can act as cleaning and emulsifying agents.

Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. XX Not applicable. — Zero.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

World totals cannot be calculated because production and reserves are not reported in a consistent manner by all countries.

BROMINE

(Data in metric tons of bromine content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Bromine was recovered from underground brines by two companies in Arkansas.

Bromine is one of the leading mineral commodities, in terms of value, produced in Arkansas. The two bromine

companies in the United States account for a large percentage of world production capacity.

The leading global applications of bromine are for the production of brominated flame retardants, and intermediates

and industrial uses. Bromine compounds are also used in a variety of other applications, including drilling fluids and

industrial water treatment. U.S. apparent consumption of bromine in 2019 was estimated to be greater than that in

2018.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018

2019

Production W W W W W

Imports for consumption, elemental

bromine and compounds

61,200 58,400 52,700 56,200 66,000

Exports, elemental bromine and compounds

29,600 28,300 43,400 40,500 44,000

Consumption, apparent

W W W W W

Price, average value of imports,

Cost, insurance, and freight, dollars per kilogram 2.27 2.19 2.30 2.21 2.19

Employment, number

1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption <25 <25 <25 <25 <25

Recycling: Some bromide solutions were recycled to obtain elemental bromine and to prevent the solutions from

being disposed of as hazardous waste. For example, hydrogen bromide is emitted as a byproduct in many organic

reactions. This byproduct waste can be recycled with virgin bromine brines and used as a source of bromine

production. Bromine contained in plastics can be incinerated as solid organic waste, and the bromine can be

recovered.

Import Sources (2015–18):

Israel, 79%; Jordan, 11%; China, 7%; and other, 3%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Bromine 2801.30.2000 5.5% ad val.

Hydrobromic acid 2811.19.3000 Free.

Potassium or sodium bromide 2827.51.0000 Free.

Ammonium, calcium, or zinc bromide 2827.59.2500 Free.

Potassium bromate 2829.90.0500 Free.

Sodium bromate 2829.90.2500 Free.

Ethylene dibromide 2903.31.0000 5.4% ad val.

Methyl bromide 2903.39.1520 Free.

Dibromoneopentyl glycol 2905.59.3000 Free.

Tetrabromobisphenol A 2908.19.2500 5.5% ad val.

Decabromodiphenyl and

octabromodiphenyl oxide 2909.30.0700 5.5% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: Brine wells, 5% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Emily K. Schnebele [(703) 648–4945, eschnebel[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

BROMINE

Events, Trends, and Issues: The United States maintained its position as one of the leading bromine producers in

the world. China, Israel, and Jordan also are major producers of elemental bromine. In 2019, U.S. net imports of

bromine and bromine compounds increased compared with those in 2018. The average import value of elemental

bromine increased by about 20% in 2019 compared with that in 2018. The leading source of imports of bromine and

bromide compound (gross weight) was Israel. The leading imported bromine products in terms of both gross weight

and bromine content were bromides and bromide oxides of ammonium, calcium, or zinc (79%) and bromides of

potassium or sodium (17%). The leading exported bromine product was methyl bromide (45%).

Global consumption of elemental bromine and brominated flame retardants was strong in 2019. The price of bromine

compounds also increased in 2019. The amount of clear brine fluids consumed in the oil-well and gas-well drilling

industries continued to mirror global changes in oil prices and the number of active drilling rigs. In 2019, the monthly

average number of active drilling rigs was about the same as in 2018.

Many bromine facilities in Shandong Province, China, remained closed in the first half of 2019 while rectifications and

improvements were completed to meet new environmental regulations initiated by the Government of China in late

2017. Some plants restarted operations in the spring of 2019 following approval by the local government while others,

especially small-scale unofficial plants, remained closed until they could meet the new guidelines.

In order to meet growing demand, a company in Jordan began an expansion project in 2018 to increase production

capacity. The increased capacity was expected to have increased the country’s 2019 bromine production.

World Production and Reserves:

Production Reserves

2018

2019

United States W W 11,000,000

Azerbaijan — — 300,000

China 60,000 60,000 NA

India 2,300 2,300 NA

Israel 175,000 180,000 Large

Japan 20,000 20,000 NA

Jordan 100,000 150,000 Large

Ukraine 4,500 4,500 NA

World total (rounded)

362,000

420,000 Large

World Resources: Bromine is found principally in seawater, evaporitic (salt) lakes, and underground brines

associated with petroleum deposits. The Dead Sea, in the Middle East, is estimated to contain 1 billion tons of

bromine. Seawater contains about 65 parts per million of bromine, or an estimated 100 trillion tons. Bromine is also

recovered from seawater as a coproduct during evaporation to produce salt.

Substitutes: Chlorine and iodine may be substituted for bromine in a few chemical reactions and for sanitation

purposes. There are no comparable substitutes for bromine in various oil-well and gas-well completion and packer

applications. Because plastics have a low ignition temperature, aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, organic

chlorine compounds, and phosphorus compounds can be substituted for bromine as fire retardants in some uses.

Estimated. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.

Imports calculated from items shown in Tariff section.

Exports calculated from Schedule B numbers 2801.30.2000, 2827.51.0000, 2827.59.0000, 2903.31.0000, and 2903.39.1520.

Defined as production (sold or used) + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

Calculated using the gross weight of imports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Excludes U.S. production.

CADMIUM

(Data in metric tons of cadmium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Two companies in the United States produced refined cadmium in 2019. One

company, operating in Tennessee, recovered primary refined cadmium as a byproduct of zinc leaching from roasted

sulfide concentrates. The other company, operating in Ohio, recovered secondary cadmium metal from spent nickel-

cadmium (NiCd) batteries. Domestic production and consumption of cadmium were withheld to avoid disclosing

company proprietary data. Cadmium metal and compounds are mainly consumed for alloys, coatings, NiCd batteries,

pigments, and plastic stabilizers. For the past 4 years, the United States has been a net importer of unwrought

cadmium metal and cadmium metal powders and a net exporter of wrought cadmium products and cadmium

pigments.

Salient Statistics—United States:

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Production, refined

W W W W W

Imports for consumption:

Unwrought cadmium and powders 237 240 274 273 350

Wrought cadmium and other articles (gross weight) 18 (

) 2 1 20

Cadmium waste and scrap (gross weight) 71 52 20 20 70

Exports:

Unwrought cadmium and powders 350 157 223 41 20

Wrought cadmium and other articles (gross weight) 246 371 205 99 70

Cadmium waste and scrap (gross weight) (

) 12 (

) (

) 6

Consumption, reported, refined W W W W W

Price, metal, annual average, dollars per kilogram

1.47 1.34 1.75 2.89 2.60

Stocks, yearend, producer and distributor W W W W W

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption E <25 <25 <50 <50

Recycling: Secondary cadmium is mainly recovered from spent consumer and industrial NiCd batteries. Other waste

and scrap from which cadmium can be recycled includes copper-cadmium alloy scrap, some complex nonferrous

alloy scrap, cadmium-containing dust from electric arc furnaces, and cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels.

Import Sources (2015–18):

China, 25%; Australia, 22%; Canada, 21%; Peru, 10%; and other, 22%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Cadmium oxide 2825.90.7500 Free.

Cadmium sulfide 2830.90.2000 3.1% ad val.

Pigments and preparations based

on cadmium compounds 3206.49.6010 3.1% ad val.

Unwrought cadmium and powders 8107.20.0000 Free.

Cadmium waste and scrap 8107.30.0000 Free.

Wrought cadmium and other articles 8107.90.0000 4.4% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Robert M. Callaghan [(703) 648–7709, r[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

CADMIUM

Events, Trends, and Issues: Most of the world’s primary cadmium metal was produced in Asia, and leading global

producers, in descending order of production, were China, the Republic of Korea, and Japan. A smaller amount of

secondary cadmium metal was recovered from recycling NiCd batteries. Although detailed data on the global

consumption of primary cadmium were not available, NiCd battery production was thought to have continued to

account for most global cadmium consumption. Other end uses for cadmium and cadmium compounds included

alloys, anticorrosive coatings, pigments, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) stabilizers, and semiconductors for solar cells.

The average monthly cadmium price began 2019 averaging $2.80 per kilogram in January and trended upward to

about $3.06 per kilogram in March. Prices began decreasing in May, falling to an average of about $2.40 per kilogram

in August.

In 2019, a U.S.-based CdTe thin-film solar-cell producer continued constructing a second manufacturing plant in

Ohio. The facility was expected to be completed in 2019 and reach its full production rate in 2020. The plant would

triple the company’s U.S. CdTe solar cell manufacturing capacity to 1.8 gigawatts per year.

World Refinery Production and Reserves:

Refinery production Reserves

2018 2019

United States

W W Quantitative estimates of reserves are

Canada 1,680 1,600 not available. The cadmium content of

China 8,200 8,200 typical zinc ores averages about 0.03%.

Japan 1,980 1,900 See the Zinc chapter for zinc reserves.

Kazakhstan 1,500 1,400

Korea, Republic of 5,000 5,000

Mexico 1,360 1,400

Netherlands 1,100 1,100

Peru 765 770

Russia 1,200 1,000

Other countries 2,310 2,300

World total (rounded)

25,100

25,000

World Resources: Cadmium is generally recovered from zinc ores and concentrates. Sphalerite, the most

economically significant zinc ore mineral, commonly contains minor amounts of cadmium, which shares certain

similar chemical properties with zinc and often substitutes for zinc in the sphalerite crystal lattice. The cadmium

mineral greenockite is frequently associated with weathered sphalerite and wurtzite.

Substitutes: Lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride batteries can replace NiCd batteries in many applications. Except

where the surface characteristics of a coating are critical (for example, fasteners for aircraft), coatings of zinc, zinc-

nickel, aluminum, or tin can be substituted for cadmium in many plating applications. Cerium sulfide is used as a

replacement for cadmium pigments, mostly in plastics. Barium-zinc or calcium-zinc stabilizers can replace barium-

cadmium stabilizers in flexible PVC applications. Amorphous silicon and copper-indium-gallium-selenide photovoltaic

cells compete with cadmium telluride in the thin-film solar-cell market. Research efforts continued to advance new

thin-film technology based on perovskite material as a potential substitute.

Estimated. E Net exporter. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Cadmium metal produced as a byproduct of zinc refining plus metal from recycling.

Less than ½ unit.

Average New York dealer price for 99.95% purity in 5-short-ton lots (2015). Source: Platts Metals Week. Average free market price for 99.95%

purity in 10-ton lots; cost, insurance, and freight; global ports (2016–18). Source: Metal Bulletin.

Defined as imports of unwrought metal and metal powders – exports of unwrought metal and metal powders + adjustments for industry stock

changes.

Imports for consumption of unwrought metal and metal powders (Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States code 8107.20.0000).

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Excludes U.S. production.

CEMENT

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, U.S. portland cement production increased by 2.5% to 86 million tons, and

masonry cement production continued to remain steady at 2.4 million tons. Cement was produced at 96 plants in 34

States, and at 2 plants in Puerto Rico. U.S. cement production continued to be limited by closed or idle plants,

underutilized capacity at others, production disruptions from plant upgrades, and relatively inexpensive imports. In

2019, sales of cement increased slightly and were valued at $12.5 billion. Most cement sales were to make concrete,

worth at least $65 billion. In 2019, it was estimated that 70% to 75% of sales were to ready-mixed concrete

producers, 10% to concrete product manufactures, 8% to 10% to contractors, and 5% to 12% to other customer

types. Texas, California, Missouri, Florida, Alabama, Michigan, and Pennsylvania were, in descending order of

production, the seven leading cement-producing States and accounted for nearly 60% of U.S. production.

Salient Statistics—United States:

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Portland and masonry cement

84,405 84,695 86,356 86,368 88,500

Clinker 76,043 75,633 76,678 77,112 78,000

Shipments to final customers, includes exports 93,543 95,397 97,935 99,406 100,000

Imports of hydraulic cement for consumption 10,376 11,742 12,288 13,764 15,000

Imports of clinker for consumption 879 1,496 1,209 967 1,100

Exports of hydraulic cement and clinker 1,543 1,097 1,035 940 1,000

Consumption, apparent

92,150 95,150 97,160 98,480 102,000

Price, average mill value, dollars per ton 106.50 111.00 117.00 121.00 123.50

Stocks, cement, yearend 7,230 7,420 7,870 8,580 8,850

Employment, mine and mill, number

12,300 12,700 12,500 12,300 12,500

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 11 13 13 14 15

Recycling: Cement is not recycled, but significant quantities of concrete are recycled for use as a construction

aggregate. Cement kilns can use waste fuels, recycled cement kiln dust, and recycled raw materials such as slags

and fly ash. Various secondary materials can be incorporated as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in

blended cements and in the cement paste in concrete.

Import Sources (2015–18):

Canada, 35%; Greece, 16%; China, 14%; Turkey, 11%; and other, 24%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Cement clinker 2523.10.0000 Free.

White portland cement 2523.21.0000 Free.

Other portland cement 2523.29.0000 Free.

Aluminous cement 2523.30.0000 Free.

Other hydraulic cement 2523.90.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Not applicable. Certain raw materials for cement production have depletion allowances.

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Kenneth C. Curry [(703) 648–7793, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

CEMENT

Events, Trends, and Issues: Construction spending decreased in 2019, owing to a decline in private residential and

nonresidential spending. Cement shipments into North Carolina and South Carolina increased owing to reconstruction

following a hurricane in 2018. The leading cement-consuming States were Texas, California, and Florida, in

descending order by tonnage.

No new company mergers were reported in 2019, but one European cement company entered into an agreement to

purchase a Mexican cement company’s plant in Pennsylvania, pending regulatory approval.

No major cement plant upgrades were completed during the year, but several minor upgrades were ongoing at a few

domestic plants. One cement company began work on an upgrade to one of its plants in Indiana, with completion

expected in 2022. Another company continued to work on securing permits for a new white cement plant in Texas,

which would be the third white cement plant in the country. Many plants have installed emissions-reduction equipment

to comply with the 2010 National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP). It remains possible

that some kilns could be shut, idled, or used in a reduced capacity to comply with NESHAP, which would constrain

U.S. clinker capacity.

World Production and Capacity:

Cement production

Clinker capacity

2018 2019 2018 2019

United States (includes Puerto Rico) 87,000 89,000 103,000 103,000

Brazil 53,000 55,000 60,000 60,000

China 2,200,000 2,200,000 2,000,000 1,970,000

Egypt 81,200 76,000 48,000 48,000

India 300,000 320,000 280,000 280,000

Indonesia 75,200 74,000 78,000 78,000

Iran 58,000 60,000 80,000 81,000

Japan 55,300 54,000 53,000 53,000

Korea, Republic of 57,500 55,000 50,000 50,000

Russia 53,700 57,000 80,000 80,000

Turkey 72,500 51,000 90,000 92,000

Vietnam 90,200 95,000 90,000 90,000

Other countries (rounded) 870,000 900,000 720,000 720,000

World total (rounded) 4,050,000 4,100,000 3,700,000 3,700,000

World Resources: Although reserves at individual plants are subject to exhaustion, limestone and other cement raw

materials are geologically widespread and abundant, and overall shortages are unlikely in the future.

Substitutes: Most portland cement is used to make concrete, mortars, or stuccos, and competes in the construction

sector with concrete substitutes, such as aluminum, asphalt, clay brick, fiberglass, glass, gypsum (plaster), steel,

stone, and wood. Certain materials, especially fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag, develop good

hydraulic cementitious properties by reacting with lime, such as that released by the hydration of portland cement.

Where readily available (including as imports), these SCMs are increasingly being used as partial substitutes for

portland cement in many concrete applications and are components of finished blended cements.

Estimated.

Portland plus masonry cement unless otherwise noted; excludes Puerto Rico unless otherwise noted.

Includes cement made from imported clinker.

Defined as production of cement (including from imported clinker) + imports (excluding clinker) - exports + adjustments for stock changes.

Defined as imports (cement and clinker) – exports.

Hydraulic cement and clinker; includes imports into Puerto Rico.

CESIUM

(Data in metric tons of cesium oxide unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, no cesium was mined domestically, and the United States was 100%

import reliant for cesium minerals. Pollucite, mainly found in association with lithium-rich, lepidolite-bearing or petalite-

bearing zoned granite pegmatites, is the principal cesium ore mineral. Cesium minerals are used as feedstocks to

produce a variety of cesium compounds and cesium metal. The primary application for cesium, by gross weight, is in

cesium formate brines used for high-pressure, high-temperature well drilling for oil and gas production and

exploration.

Cesium metal is used in the production of cesium compounds and potentially in photoelectric cells. Cesium bromide is

used in infrared detectors, optics, photoelectric cells, scintillation counters, and spectrophotometers. Cesium

carbonate is used in the alkylation of organic compounds and in energy conversion devices, such as fuel cells,

magneto-hydrodynamic generators, and polymer solar cells. Cesium chloride is used in analytical chemistry

applications as a reagent, in high-temperature solders, as an intermediate in cesium metal production, in isopycnic

centrifugation, as a radioisotope in nuclear medicine, as an insect repellent in agricultural applications, and in

specialty glasses. Cesium hydroxide is used as an electrolyte in alkaline storage batteries. Cesium iodide is used in

fluoroscopy equipment—Fourier-transform infrared spectrometers—as the input phosphor of x-ray image intensifier

tubes, and in scintillators. Cesium nitrate is used as a colorant and oxidizer in the pyrotechnic industry, in petroleum

cracking, in scintillation counters, and in x-ray phosphors. Cesium sulfates are soluble in water and are thought to be

used primarily in water treatment, fuel cells, and to improve optical quality for scientific instruments.

Cesium isotopes, which are obtained as a byproduct in nuclear fission or formed from other isotopes, such as barium-

131, are used in electronic, medical, metallurgical, and research applications. Cesium isotopes are used as an atomic

resonance frequency standard in atomic clocks, which plays a vital role in aircraft guidance systems, global

positioning satellites, and internet and cellular telephone transmissions. Cesium clocks monitor the cycles of

microwave radiation emitted by cesium’s electrons and use these cycles as a time reference. Owing to the high

accuracy of the cesium atomic clock, the international definition of 1 second is based on the cesium atom. The U.S.

civilian time and frequency standard is based on a cesium fountain clock at the National Institute of Standards and

Technology in Boulder, CO. The U.S. military frequency standard, the United States Naval Observatory Time Scale,

is based on 48 weighted atomic clocks, including 25 cesium fountain clocks.

A company in Richland, WA, produced a range of cesium-131 medical products for treatment of various cancers.

Cesium-137 may be used in industrial gauges, in mining and geophysical instruments, and for sterilization of food,

sewage, and surgical equipment. Because of the danger posed by the radiological properties of cesium-137, efforts to

find substitutes in its applications continued.

Salient Statistics—United States: Consumption, import, and export data for cesium have not been available since

the late 1980s. Because cesium metal is not traded in commercial quantities, a market price is unavailable. Only a

few thousand kilograms of cesium chemicals are thought to be consumed in the United States every year. The United

States was 100% import reliant for its cesium needs.

In 2019, one company offered 1-gram ampoules of 99.8% (metal basis) cesium for $63.00, a slight increase from

$61.80 in 2018, and 99.98% (metal basis) cesium for $81.10, a 3% increase from $78.70 in 2018.

In 2019, the prices for 50 grams of 99.9% (metal basis) cesium acetate, cesium bromide, cesium carbonate, cesium

chloride, and cesium iodide were $118.20, $71.90, $101.80, $103.60, and $117.00 respectively, a 3% increase from

prices in 2018. The price for a cesium-plasma standard solution (10,000 micrograms per milliliter) was $81.90 for 50

milliliters and $125.00 for 100 milliliters, and the price for 25 grams of cesium formate, 98% basis, was $39.90.

Recycling: Cesium formate brines are typically rented by oil and gas exploration clients. After completion of the well,

the used cesium formate brine is returned and reprocessed for subsequent drilling operations. The formate brines are

recycled with an estimated recovery rate of 85%, which can be reprocessed for further use.

Import Sources (2015–18): No reliable data have been available to determine the source of cesium ore imported by

the United States since 1988. Previously, Canada was thought to be the primary supplier of cesium ore.

Prepared by Candice C. Tuck [(703) 648–4912, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

CESIUM

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Alkali metals, other 2805.19.9000 5.5% ad val.

Chlorides, other 2827.39.9000 3.7% ad val.

Bromides, other 2827.59.5100 3.6% ad val.

Iodides, other 2827.60.5100 4.2% ad val.

Sulfates, other 2833.29.5100 3.7% ad val.

Nitrates, other 2834.29.5100 3.5% ad val.

Carbonates, other 2836.99.5000 3.7% ad val.

Cesium-137, other 2844.40.0021 Free

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic cesium occurrences will likely remain uneconomic unless market conditions

change. No known human health issues are associated with naturally occurring cesium, and its use has minimal

environmental impact. Radioactive isotopes of cesium have been known to cause adverse health effects. Certain

cesium compounds may be toxic if consumed. Food that has been irradiated using the radioisotope Cesium-137 has

been found to be safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

During 2019, projects that were primarily aimed at developing lithium resources with cesium content were at various

stages of development. One United States-based company sold its cesium mine in Manitoba, Canada, and its

specialty fluids division, including cesium formate, in Norway, Scotland, and Singapore to a company in China.

Operations commenced at a pollucite mine in Western Australia in December 2018, with cesium being exported to the

United States as contracted with a cesium chemical producer. The company reported that the first stage of mining

produced 19,000 tons of pollucite with an average grade of 9.1% cesium oxide. The U.S. Food and Drug

Administration issued a notice of significant health and safety risks associated with compounded cesium chloride,

which had been used as an alternative cancer treatment. In May 2019, a blood irradiator that used cesium-137 spilled

while being moved from a medical research center to a secure disposal site. The National Nuclear Security

Administration managed the cleanup efforts and an investigation. Congressional budget proposals recommended

increased funding for the National Nuclear Security Administration’s Cesium Irradiator Replacement Project to assist

in replacing cesium-137 blood irradiators.

World Mine Production and Reserves: There were no official sources for cesium production data. In addition to

production of pollucite in Australia, Namibia and Zimbabwe were thought to have produced cesium in small quantities

as a byproduct of lithium mining operations. Cesium reserves are, therefore, estimated based on the occurrence of

pollucite, which is mined as a byproduct of the lithium mineral lepidolite. Most pollucite contains 5% to 32% cesium

oxide. Reserves data for Australia and Canada were added based on industry information.

Reserves

Australia 7,100

Canada 120,000

Namibia 30,000

Zimbabwe 60,000

World total (rounded) 220,000

World Resources: Cesium is associated with lithium-bearing pegmatites worldwide, and cesium resources have

been identified in Australia, Canada, Namibia, the United States, and Zimbabwe. In the United States, pollucite

occurs in pegmatites in Alaska, Maine, and South Dakota. Lower concentrations occur in brines in Chile and China

and in geothermal systems in Germany, India, and Tibet. China was thought to have cesium-rich deposits of

geyserite, lepidolite, and pollucite, with concentrations highest in Yichun, Jiangxi Province, although no resource,

reserves, or production estimates were available.

Substitutes: Cesium and rubidium can be used interchangeably in many applications because they have similar

physical properties and atomic radii. Cesium, however, is more electropositive than rubidium, making it a preferred

material for some applications. However, rubidium is mined from similar deposits, in relatively smaller quantities, as a

byproduct of cesium production in pegmatites and as a byproduct of lithium production from lepidolite (hard-rock)

mining and processing, making it no more readily available than cesium.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

CHROMIUM

(Data in thousand metric tons of chromium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, the United States was expected to consume 4% of world chromite ore

production in various forms of imported materials, such as chromite ore, chromium chemicals, chromium ferroalloys,

chromium metal, and stainless steel. Imported chromite ore was consumed by one chemical firm to produce

chromium chemicals. Stainless-steel and heat-resisting-steel producers were the leading consumers of

ferrochromium. Stainless steels and superalloys require the addition of chromium via ferrochromium or chromium-

containing scrap. The value of chromium material consumption in 2018 was $1.2 billion as measured by the value of

net imports, excluding stainless steel, and was expected to be about $810 million in 2019.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Mine — — — — —

Recycling

159 156 156 143 140

Imports for consumption 511 528 615 621 520

Exports 238 253 256 230 150

Shipments from Government stockpile 9 5 8 4 3

Consumption:

Reported (includes recycling) 486 475 483 464 460

Apparent (includes recycling)

441 436 523 538 510

Unit value, average annual import (dollars per ton):

Chromite ore (gross weight) 216 198 259 279 270

Ferrochromium (chromium content)

2,606 2,227 3,212 2,933 2,200

Chromium metal (gross weight) 11,386 9,827 9,682 11,344 11,000

Stocks, yearend, held by U.S. consumers 8 8 8 8 8

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 64 64 70 73 72

Recycling: In 2019, recycled chromium (contained in reported stainless steel scrap receipts) accounted for 28% of

apparent consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): Chromite (mineral): South Africa, 99%; and Canada, 1%. Chromium-containing scrap:

Canada, 49%; Mexico, 43%; and other, 8%. Chromium (primary metal):

South Africa, 34%; Kazakhstan, 9%; Russia,

8%; and other, 49%. Total imports: South Africa, 38%; Kazakhstan, 7%; Russia, 6%; and other, 49%.

Tariff:

Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Chromium ores and concentrates:

not more than 40% 2610.00.0020 Free.

more than 40% and less than 46% 2610.00.0040 Free.

more than or equal to 46% 2610.00.0060 Free.

Chromium oxides and hydroxides:

Chromium trioxide 2819.10.0000 3.7% ad val.

Other 2819.90.0000 3.7% ad val.

Sodium dichromate 2841.30.0000 2.4% ad val.

Potassium dichromate 2841.50.1000 1.5% ad val.

Other chromates and dichromates 2841.50.9100 3.1% ad val.

Carbides of chromium 2849.90.2000 4.2% ad val.

Ferrochromium:

Carbon more than 4% 7202.41.0000 1.9% ad val.

Carbon more than 3% 7202.49.1000 1.9% ad val.

Carbon more than 0.5% 7202.49.5010 3.1% ad val.

Other 7202.49.5090 3.1% ad val.

Ferrosilicon chromium 7202.50.0000 10% ad val.

Chromium metal:

Unwrought, powder 8112.21.0000 3% ad val.

Waste and scrap 8112.22.0000 Free.

Other 8112.29.0000 3% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Prepared by Ruth F. Schulte [(703) 648–4963, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

CHROMIUM

Government Stockpile:

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material

As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Ferrochromium:

High-carbon 39.6 —

21.3 —

21.3

Low-carbon 27.4 — — — —

Chromium metal 3.85 — 0.181 — 0.181

Events, Trends, and Issues: Chromium is consumed in the form of ferrochromium to produce stainless steel. South

Africa was the leading chromite ore producer. Increased labor costs, increased costs for electricity, an unreliable

supply of electricity, and challenges related to deep level mining, together with the decreasing cost of chromite ore,

could affect production in South Africa.

China was the leading chromium-consuming country. China was also the leading stainless-steel- and ferrochromium-

producing country. South Africa was the second-leading country in ferrochromium production. Ferrochromium

production is electrical-energy intensive, so constrained electrical power supply and rising costs for electricity in South

Africa could also impact ferrochromium production.

From September 2018 to September 2019, high-carbon ferrochromium prices decreased by 43%. Prices in

September 2019 were below the prior low in October 2016.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

(shipping grade)

United States — — 620

Finland 2,210 2,200 13,000

India 4,300 4,100 100,000

Kazakhstan 6,690 6,700 230,000

South Africa 17,600 17,000 200,000

Turkey 8,000 10,000 26,000

Other countries 4,250 4,000 NA

World total (rounded) 43,100 44,000 570,000

World Resources: World resources are greater than 12 billion tons of shipping-grade chromite, sufficient to meet

conceivable demand for centuries. The world’s chromium resources are heavily geographically concentrated (95%) in

Kazakhstan and southern Africa; United States chromium resources are mostly in the Stillwater Complex in Montana.

Substitutes: Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use, or in superalloys, the major strategic

end use. Chromium-containing scrap can substitute for ferrochromium in some metallurgical uses.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Recycling production is based on reported receipts of all types of stainless steel scrap.

Defined as production (from mines and recycling) + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.

Excludes ferrochromium silicon.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.

Includes chromium metal scrap and stainless steel scrap.

Includes chromium metal, ferrochromium, and stainless steel.

In addition to the tariff items listed, certain imported chromium materials (see 26 U.S.C. sec. 4661, 4662, and 4672) are subject to excise tax.

See Appendix B for definitions.

Units are thousand tons of material by gross weight.

High-carbon and low-carbon ferrochromium, combined.

Mine production units are thousand tons, gross weight, of marketable chromite ore.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Reserves units are thousand tons of shipping-grade chromite ore, which is deposit quantity and grade normalized to 45% Cr

except for the

United States where grade is normalized to 7% Cr

and Finland where grade is normalized to 26% Cr

CLAYS

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Production of clays (sold or used) in the United States was estimated to be

26 million tons valued at $1.8 billion in 2019, with about 145 companies operating clay and shale mines in 40 States.

The leading 20 firms produced approximately 50% of the U.S. tonnage and 85% of the value for all types of clay.

Principal uses for specific clays were estimated to be as follows: ball clay—50% floor and wall tile and 15%

sanitaryware; bentonite—52% pet waste absorbents and 31% drilling mud; common clay—34% brick, 29%

lightweight aggregate, and 24% cement; fire clay—70% heavy clay products (for example, brick and cement) and

30% refractory products and miscellaneous uses; fuller’s earth—98% pet waste absorbents; and kaolin—60% paper

coating and filling, 12% paint, and 9% catalysts. Lightweight ceramic proppants for use in hydraulic fracturing are also

a significant market for kaolin, but data were insufficient to estimate market size.

Exports of clay and shale were estimated to have increased by 4% in 2019 after remaining essentially unchanged in

2018. In 2019, the United States exported 820,000 tons of bentonite mainly for pet waste absorbent, drilling mud,

foundry sand bond, and iron ore pelletizing applications, with Canada, Japan, and Mexico being the leading

destinations. About 2.5 million tons of kaolin were exported mainly as a paper coating and filler; a component in

ceramic bodies; and fillers and extenders in paint, plastic, and rubber products, with China, Japan, and Mexico being

the leading destinations. Lesser quantities of ball clay, fire clay, and fuller’s earth were exported for ceramic,

refractory, and absorbent uses, respectively.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production (sold or used):

Ball clay 1,220 1,270 1,270 1,120 1,100

Bentonite 4,080 4,000 4,430 4,670 4,700

Common clay 12,000 13,000 13,300 12,700 12,000

Fire clay 398 534 575 567 560

Fuller’s earth

1,960 1,860 1,840 1,880 2,000

Kaolin 5,810 5,290 5,560 5,530 5,500

Total

1, 2

25,500 26,000 27,000 26,400 26,000

Imports for consumption:

Artificially activated clays and earths 24 26 28 23 16

Kaolin 426 389 316 330 260

Other 71 57 86 68 58

Total

520 473 430 421 330

Exports:

Artificially activated clays and earths 173 143 147 149 160

Ball clay 48 41 83 90 93

Bentonite 938 801 961 845 820

Clays, not elsewhere classified 268 256 244 244 290

Fire clay

217 184 225 250 300

Fuller’s earth 77 86 78 70 67

Kaolin 2,420 2,290 2,310 2,390 2,500

Total

4,140 3,800 4,040 4,030 4,200

Consumption, apparent

21,800 22,600 23,400 22,800 22,000

Price, ex-works, average, dollars per ton:

Ball clay 50 39 49 54 55

Bentonite 98 99 99 99 100

Common clay 14 14 15 16 17

Fire clay 13 13 13 12 11

Fuller’s earth

86 89 93 88 89

Kaolin 151 157 156 156 158

Employment (excludes office workers):

Mine (may not include contract workers) 1,130 1,120 1,220 1,110 1,110

Mill 4,730 4,440 4,370 4,360 4,360

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption E E E E E

Recycling: Insignificant.

Import Sources (2015–18): All clay types combined: Brazil, 75%; China, 7%; Mexico, 6%; and other, 12%.

Prepared by Jason C. Willett [(703) 648–6473, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

CLAYS

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Kaolin and other kaolinic clays,

whether or not calcined 2507.00.0000 Free.

Bentonite 2508.10.0000 Free.

Fire clay 2508.30.0000 Free.

Common blue clay and other ball clays 2508.40.0110 Free.

Decolorizing earths and fuller’s earth 2508.40.0120 Free.

Other clays 2508.40.0150 Free.

Chamotte or dinas earth 2508.70.0000 Free.

Activated clays and activated earths 3802.90.2000 2.5% ad val.

Expanded clays and other mixtures 6806.20.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Ball clay, bentonite, fire clay, fuller’s earth, and kaolin, 14% (Domestic and foreign); clay used

in the manufacture of common brick, lightweight aggregate, and sewer pipe, 7.5% (Domestic and foreign); clay used

in the manufacture of drain and roofing tile, flower pots, and kindred products, 5% (Domestic and foreign); clay from

which alumina and aluminum compounds are extracted, 22% (Domestic).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Total U.S. sales of clays decreased slightly in 2018 and again in 2019 compared with

those of the previous year. Over the past 2 years, other industrial minerals associated with construction activity have

been estimated to have increased. Ball clay and common clay experienced decreases during this period and sales of

bentonite increased in 2018 and were essentially unchanged in 2019.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Global reserves are large, but country-specific data are not available.

Mine production

Bentonite Fuller’s earth Kaolin

2018 2019

United States 4,670 4,700

1,880

2,000 5,530 5,500

Brazil (beneficiated) 520 520 — — 1,800 1,800

China 5,600 5,600 — — 3,200 3,200

Czechia 277 280 — —

3,620

3,600

Germany 395 390 — — 4,300 4,300

Greece

1,360

1,400 53 60 — —

India 800 810 6 6

4,000

Iran 360 360 — — 790 790

Mexico 470 470 110 110 330 330

Senegal — — 178 180 — —

Spain 175 180 625 630

450

Turkey 1,500 1,500 20 — 1,400 1,400

Ukraine 110 110 — — 2,400 2,400

United Kingdom — — — — 1,000 1,000

Other countries 2,230 2,200 345 350 13,400 13,000

World total (rounded) 18,500 18,500

3,220

3,300 42,200 42,000

World Resources: Resources of all clays are extremely large.

Substitutes: Clays compete with calcium carbonate in filler and extender applications; diatomite, organic pet litters,

polymers, silica gel, and zeolites as absorbents; and various siding and roofing types in building construction.

Estimated. E Net exporter. — Zero.

Does not include U.S. production of attapulgite.

Data may not add to totals shown because of independent rounding.

Includes refractory-grade kaolin.

Defined as production (sold or used) + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Includes production of crude ore.

COBALT

(Data in metric tons of cobalt content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, the nickel-copper Eagle Mine in Michigan produced cobalt-bearing nickel

concentrate. In Missouri, a company built a flotation plant and produced nickel-copper-cobalt concentrate from historic

mine tailings. Most U.S. cobalt supply comprised imports and secondary (scrap) materials. Approximately six

companies in the United States produced cobalt chemicals. About 46% of the cobalt consumed in the United States

was used in superalloys, mainly in aircraft gas turbine engines; 9% in cemented carbides for cutting and wear-

resistant applications; 14% in various other metallic applications; and 31% in a variety of chemical applications. The

total estimated value of cobalt consumed in 2019 was $400 million.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Mine

760 690 640 490 500

Secondary 2,750 2,750 2,750 2,740 2,700

Imports for consumption 11,400 12,800 11,900 11,800 13,600

Exports 3,830 4,160 5,710 6,960 4,000

Consumption:

Reported (includes secondary) 8,830 9,010 9,240 9,270 9,300

Apparent

(includes secondary)

10,300 11,500 8,920 7,580 12,400

Price, average, dollars per pound:

U.S. spot, cathode

13.44 12.01 26.97 37.43 17.00

London Metal Exchange (LME), cash 12.90 11.57 25.28 32.94 15.00

Stocks, yearend:

Industry

1,070 969 1,020 1,040 1,000

LME, U.S. warehouse 165 195 160 130 110

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 73 76 69 64 78

Recycling: In 2019, cobalt contained in purchased scrap represented an estimated 29% of cobalt reported

consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): Cobalt contained in metal, oxide, and salts: Norway, 17%; Japan, 13%; China, 11%;

Canada, 11%; and other, 48%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Cobalt ores and concentrates 2605.00.0000 Free.

Chemical compounds:

Cobalt oxides and hydroxides 2822.00.0000 0.1% ad val.

Cobalt chlorides 2827.39.6000 4.2% ad val.

Cobalt sulfates 2833.29.1000 1.4% ad val.

Cobalt carbonates 2836.99.1000 4.2% ad val.

Cobalt acetates 2915.29.3000 4.2% ad val.

Unwrought cobalt, alloys 8105.20.3000 4.4% ad val.

Unwrought cobalt, other 8105.20.6000 Free.

Cobalt mattes and other intermediate

products; cobalt powders 8105.20.9000 Free.

Cobalt waste and scrap 8105.30.0000 Free.

Wrought cobalt and cobalt articles 8105.90.0000 3.7% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile:

See the Lithium chapter for statistics on lithium-cobalt oxide and lithium-nickel-cobalt-

aluminum oxide.

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Cobalt 302 — — — —

Cobalt alloys, gross weight 3 — — — —

Prepared by Kim B. Shedd [(703) 648–4974, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

COBALT

Events, Trends, and Issues: Congo (Kinshasa) continued to be the world’s leading source of mined cobalt,

supplying approximately 70% of world cobalt mine production. With the exception of production in Morocco and

artisanally mined cobalt in Congo (Kinshasa), most cobalt is mined as a byproduct of copper or nickel. China was the

world’s leading producer of refined cobalt, most of which it produced from partially refined cobalt imported from Congo

(Kinshasa). China was the world’s leading consumer of cobalt, with more than 80% of its consumption being used by

the rechargeable battery industry.

During the first 7 months of 2019, cobalt prices generally trended downward, which analysts attributed to oversupply

and consumer destocking and deferral of purchases. In early August, a Switzerland-based producer and marketer of

commodities announced that, owing to low cobalt prices, it planned to place its world-leading cobalt mine on care-

and-maintenance status by yearend 2019. Following the announcement, cobalt prices increased, then stabilized.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for multiple countries were revised based on industry reports.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 490 500 55,000

Australia 4,880 5,100

1,200,000

Canada 3,520 3,000 230,000

China 2,000 2,000 80,000

Congo (Kinshasa) 104,000 100,000 3,600,000

Cuba 3,500 3,500 500,000

Madagascar 3,300 3,300 120,000

Morocco 2,100 2,100 18,000

New Caledonia

2,100 1,600 —

Papua New Guinea 3,280 3,100 56,000

Philippines 4,600 4,600 260,000

Russia 6,100 6,100 250,000

South Africa 2,300 2,400 50,000

Other countries 5,540 5,700 570,000

World total (rounded) 148,000 140,000 7,000,000

World Resources: Identified cobalt resources of the United States are estimated to be about 1 million tons. Most of

these resources are in Minnesota, but other important occurrences are in Alaska, California, Idaho, Michigan,

Missouri, Montana, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. With the exception of resources in Idaho and Missouri, any future

cobalt production from these deposits would be as a byproduct of another metal. Identified world terrestrial cobalt

resources are about 25 million tons. The vast majority of these resources are in sediment-hosted stratiform copper

deposits in Congo (Kinshasa) and Zambia; nickel-bearing laterite deposits in Australia and nearby island countries

and Cuba; and magmatic nickel-copper sulfide deposits hosted in mafic and ultramafic rocks in Australia, Canada,

Russia, and the United States. More than 120 million tons of cobalt resources have been identified in manganese

nodules and crusts on the floor of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.

Substitutes: Depending on the application, substitution for cobalt could result in a loss in product performance or an

increase in cost. The cobalt contents of lithium-ion batteries, the leading global use for cobalt, are expected to be

reduced rather than eliminated; nickel contents of lithium-ion batteries will increase as cobalt contents decrease.

Potential substitutes in other applications include barium or strontium ferrites, neodymium-iron-boron, or nickel-iron

alloys in magnets; cerium, iron, lead, manganese, or vanadium in paints; cobalt-iron-copper or iron-copper in diamond

tools; copper-iron-manganese for curing unsaturated polyester resins; iron, iron-cobalt-nickel, nickel, cermets, or

ceramics in cutting and wear-resistant materials; nickel-based alloys or ceramics in jet engines; nickel in petroleum

catalysts; rhodium in hydroformylation catalysts; and titanium-based alloys in prosthetics.

Estimated. — Zero.

Defined as net import reliance + secondary production, as estimated from consumption of purchased scrap.

As reported by Platts Metals Week. Cobalt cathode is refined cobalt metal produced by an electrolytic process.

Stocks held by consumers and processors; excludes stocks held by trading companies and held for investment purposes.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes for refined cobalt.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 310,000 tons.

Overseas territory of France. Although nickel-cobalt mining and processing continued, the leading producer reported zero reserves based on

recent nickel prices.

COPPER

(Data in thousand metric tons of copper content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, U.S. mine production of recoverable copper increased by 6% to an

estimated 1.3 million tons and was valued at an estimated $7.9 billion, slightly less than $8.05 billion in 2018. Arizona

was the leading copper-producing State and accounted for an estimated 68% of domestic output, followed by, in

descending order, Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, Montana, Michigan, and Missouri. Twenty-four mines recovered

copper, 15 of which accounted for 99% of production. Three smelters, 3 electrolytic refineries, 4 fire refineries, and 14

electrowinning facilities operated during 2019. Refined copper and scrap were used at about 30 brass mills, 15 rod

mills, and 500 foundries and miscellaneous consumers. Copper and copper alloy products were used in building

construction, 43%; electrical and electronic products, 20%; transportation equipment, 20%; consumer and general

products, 10%; and industrial machinery and equipment, 7%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017

2018 2019

Production:

Mine, recoverable 1,380 1,430 1,260 1,220 1,300

Refinery:

Primary (from ore) 1,090 1,180 1,040 1,070 1,000

Secondary (from scrap) 49 46 40 41 45

Copper recovered from old (post-consumer) scrap

166 149 146 149 160

Imports for consumption:

Ores and concentrates (

) (

) 14 32 35

Refined 687 708 813 778 650

Exports:

Ores and concentrates 392 331 237 253 330

Refined 86 134 94 190 140

Consumption:

Reported, refined metal 1,810 1,800 1,800 1,820 1,850

Apparent (primary refined and old scrap)

2, 4

1,840 1,880 1,860 1,830 1,800

Price, annual average, cents per pound:

U.S. producer, cathode (COMEX + premium) 256.2 224.9 285.4 298.7 280.0

COMEX, high-grade, first position 250.8 219.7 280.4 292.6 270.0

London Metal Exchange, high-grade 249.5 220.6 279.5 296.0 270.0

Stocks, yearend, refined, held by U.S.

producers, consumers, and metal exchanges 209 223 265 244 130

Employment, mine and plant, thousands 11.2 10.1 10.5 11.7 12.0

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 32 30 36 33 35

Recycling: Old (post-consumer) scrap, converted to refined metal and alloys, provided an estimated 160,000 tons of

copper, equivalent to 9% of apparent consumption. Purchased new (manufacturing) scrap, derived from fabricating

operations, yielded an estimated 710,000 tons of copper. Of the total copper recovered from scrap (including

aluminum- and nickel-base scrap), brass and wire-rod mills recovered approximately 80%; copper smelters, refiners,

and ingot makers, 15%; and miscellaneous chemical plants, foundries, and manufacturers, 5%. Copper in all scrap

contributed about 35% of the U.S. copper supply.

Import Sources (2015–18): Copper content of blister and anodes: South Africa, 61%; Finland, 29%; Malaysia, 8%;

and other, 2%. Copper content of ores and concentrates: Mexico, 99%; and other, 1%. Copper content of scrap:

Canada, 55%; Mexico, 33%; and other, 12%. Refined copper: Chile, 56%; Canada, 26%; Mexico, 11%; and other,

7%. Refined copper accounted for 85% of all unwrought copper imports.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Copper ores and concentrates, copper content 2603.00.0010 1.7¢/kg on lead content.

Unrefined copper anodes 7402.00.0000 Free.

Refined copper and alloys, unwrought 7403.00.0000 1.0% ad val.

Copper wire rod 7408.11.0000 1.0% or 3.0% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 15% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Daniel M. Flanagan [(703) 648–7726, df[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

COPPER

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, U.S. mine production of copper increased by an estimated 6% owing to higher

ore grades and (or) higher mining and milling rates at several operations. Output from the Mission Mine rose from that

in 2018, when production was significantly affected by a landslide early in the year. On October 11, about 75% of

unionized workers at a company with mines and plants in Arizona and Texas voted to go on strike. The company

announced that it would temporarily close its smelter and refinery but did not address the status of its Arizona mines.

Non-striking workers may have continued to extract ore at some sites, based on media reports. Production of refined

copper in the United States fell by an estimated 7% as a result of the strike, which had not been resolved as of early

December, and maintenance shutdowns at two other smelters. Two projects (Gunnison in Arizona and Pumpkin

Hollow in Nevada) planned to begin production by yearend but had not started up as of the end of November.

Estimated global mine production of copper decreased slightly to 20 million tons in 2019 from 20.4 million tons in

2018, owing primarily to reduced output from the Batu Hijau and Grasberg Mines in Indonesia, where mining was

shifting to new ore zones. Production also declined in Chile as a result of lower ore grades, strikes, and weather-

related disruptions. These decreases were partially offset by increased output from multiple other countries. Global

refined production increased slightly to an estimated 25 million tons in 2019 from 24.4 million tons in 2018. Higher

refinery capacity in China was mostly offset by smelter shutdowns for maintenance and upgrades in other countries.

In Zambia, mined and refined copper output were affected by a new import duty on copper concentrates, which

lowered smelter production and constrained the supply of sulfuric acid needed to produce electrowon copper.

Through November 2019, the monthly average COMEX spot copper price varied between $2.56 per pound (October)

and $2.92 per pound (April). It was projected to average about $2.70 per pound for the full year, a decrease of 8%

from $2.93 per pound in 2018.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for multiple countries were revised based on reported company

data and (or) information from the Governments of those countries.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 1,220 1,300 51,000

Australia 920 960

87,000

Chile 5,830 5,600 200,000

China 1,590 1,600 26,000

Congo (Kinshasa) 1,230 1,300 19,000

Indonesia 651 340 28,000

Kazakhstan 603 700 20,000

Mexico 751 770 53,000

Peru 2,440 2,400 87,000

Russia 751 750 61,000

Zambia 854 790 19,000

Other countries 3,540 3,800 220,000

World total (rounded) 20,400 20,000 870,000

World Resources: A 2014 U.S. Geological Survey assessment of copper deposits indicated that identified resources

contained about 2.1 billion tons of copper, and undiscovered resources contained an estimated 3.5 billion tons.

Substitutes: Aluminum substitutes for copper in automobile radiators, cooling and refrigeration tube, electrical

equipment, and power cable. Titanium and steel are used in heat exchangers. Optical fiber substitutes for copper in

telecommunications applications, and plastics substitute for copper in drain pipe, plumbing fixtures, and water pipe.

Estimated.

Distribution reported by the Copper Development Association. Some electrical components are included in each end use.

Includes copper converted to refined metal and alloys by brass and wire-rod mills, foundries, refineries, and other manufacturers.

Less than ½ unit.

Primary refined production + copper in old scrap converted to refined metal and alloys + refined imports – refined exports ± refined stock changes.

Defined as refined imports – refined exports ± adjustments for refined copper stock changes.

Primary refined production + copper recovered from old and new scrap + refined imports – refined exports ± refined stock changes.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 23 million tons.

Johnson, K.M., Hammarstrom, J.M., Zientek, M.L., and Dicken, C.L., 2014, Estimate of undiscovered copper resources of the world, 2013: U.S.

Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2014–3004, 3 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20143004.

DIAMOND (INDUSTRIAL)

(Data in million carats unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, total domestic primary production of manufactured industrial diamond bort,

grit, and dust and powder was estimated to be 190 million carats with a value of $86 million. There was no domestic

production of stone. One firm in Ohio and one firm in Pennsylvania accounted for all of the production. At least nine

firms produced polycrystalline diamond from diamond powder. At least two companies recovered used industrial

diamond as one of their principal operations. The major consuming sectors of industrial diamond are computer chip

production; construction; drilling for minerals, natural gas, and oil; machinery manufacturing; stone cutting and

polishing; and transportation (infrastructure and vehicles). Highway building, milling, and repair and stone cutting

consumed most of the industrial diamond stone. About 99% of U.S. industrial diamond apparent consumption was

synthetic industrial diamond because its quality can be controlled and its properties can be customized.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Bort, grit, and dust and powder; natural and synthetic:

Production:

Manufactured diamond

40 42 41 184 190

Secondary 63 66 11 33 38

Imports for consumption 275 216 362 548 350

Exports 140 134 161 159 120

Consumption, apparent

238 190 253 606 460

Price, value of imports, dollars per carat 0.20 0.23 0.16 0.12 0.13

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 57 43 79 64 50

Stones, natural and synthetic:

Production:

Manufactured diamond

79 83 87 — —

Secondary 0.19 0.36 0.39 0.13 0.12

Imports for consumption 1.31 1.37 1.23 0.95 0.84

Exports — — — — —

Sales from Government stockpile excesses — — — — —

Consumption, apparent

80.7 84.9 89.0 1.1 1.0

Price, value of imports, dollars per carat 17.50 13.60 12.90 7.60 7.20

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 2 2 1 88 88

Recycling: In 2019, the amount of diamond bort, grit, and dust and powder recycled was estimated to be 38 million

carats with an estimated value of $790,000. It was estimated that 120,000 carats of diamond stone was recycled with

an estimated value of $190,000.

Import Sources (2015–18): Bort, grit, and dust and powder; natural and synthetic: China, 77%; Ireland, 8%; Republic

of Korea, 5%; Russia, 4%; and other, 6%. Stones, primarily natural: India, 32%; South Africa, 31%; Botswana, 17%;

Australia, 9%; and other, 11%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Industrial Miners’ diamonds, carbonados 7102.21.1010 Free.

Industrial Miners’ diamonds, other 7102.21.1020 Free.

Industrial diamonds, simply sawn, cleaved, or bruted 7102.21.3000 Free.

Industrial diamonds, not worked 7102.21.4000 Free.

Grit or dust and powder of natural diamonds,

80 mesh or finer 7105.10.0011 Free.

Grit or dust and powder of natural diamonds,

over 80 mesh 7105.10.0015 Free.

Grit or dust and powder of synthetic diamonds,

coated with metal 7105.10.0020 Free.

Grit or dust and powder of synthetic diamonds,

not coated with metal, 80 mesh or finer 7105.10.0030 Free.

Grit or dust and powder of synthetic diamonds,

not coated with metal, over 80 mesh 7105.10.0050 Free.

Prepared by Donald W. Olson [(703) 648–7721, dolson@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

DIAMOND (INDUSTRIAL)

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, China was the world’s leading producer of synthetic industrial diamond, with

annual production exceeding 14.6 billion carats. The United States is likely to continue to be one of the world’s

leading markets for industrial diamond into the next decade and is expected to remain a significant producer and

exporter of synthetic industrial diamond as well. U.S. demand for industrial diamond is likely to be strong in the

construction sector as the United States continues building, milling, and repairing the Nation’s highway system.

Industrial diamond coats the cutting edge of saws used to cut concrete in highway construction and repair work.

In 2018 and 2019, U.S. synthetic-industrial-diamond producers did not manufacture any diamond stone. This resulted

in the large decrease in apparent consumption and the large increase in industrial diamond stone import reliance

seen in the salient statistics table. Domestic and global demand for synthetic diamond grit and powder is expected to

remain greater than that for natural diamond material.

Synthetic diamond production far exceeds natural industrial diamond output. Worldwide production of manufactured

industrial diamond totaled at least 14.6 billion carats in 2019; the leading producers included China, France, Ireland,

Japan, Russia, South Africa, Sweden, and the United States.

Global rough diamond production decreased by 14% during the first two quarters of 2019 driven by reductions in

Botswana and South Africa. Globally, most natural industrial diamond is produced as a byproduct of mining gem-

quality diamond.

World Natural Industrial Diamond Mine Production and Reserves:

Reserves for Australia and South Africa were

revised based on Government and company information.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — — NA

Australia 14 13

Botswana 7 6 90

Congo (Kinshasa) 12 12 150

Russia 19 19 650

South Africa 2 2 54

Zimbabwe 3 3 NA

Other countries 1 1 120

World total (rounded) 58 56 1,100

World Resources: Natural diamond deposits have been discovered in more than 35 countries. Natural diamond

accounts for about 1% of all industrial diamond used; synthetic diamond accounts for the remainder. At least 15

countries have the technology to produce synthetic diamond.

Substitutes: Materials that can compete with industrial diamond in some applications include manufactured

abrasives, such as cubic boron nitride, fused aluminum oxide, and silicon carbide. Globally, synthetic diamond, rather

than natural diamond, is used for about 99% of industrial applications.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

See Gemstones for information on gem-quality diamond.

Defined as manufactured diamond production + secondary diamond production + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

Natural industrial diamond only.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 39 million carats.

DIATOMITE

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, production of diatomite was estimated to be 980,000 tons with an

estimated processed value of $330 million, f.o.b. plant. Six companies produced diatomite at 12 mining areas and 9

processing facilities in California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. Approximately 60% of diatomite is used in

filtration products. The remaining 40% is used in absorbents, fillers, lightweight aggregates, and other applications. A

small amount, less than 1%, is used for specialized pharmaceutical and biomedical purposes. The unit value of

diatomite varied widely in 2019, from approximately $10 per ton when used as a lightweight aggregate in portland

cement concrete to more than $1,000 per ton for limited specialty markets, including art supplies, cosmetics, and

DNA extraction.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017

2018 2019

Production

832 686 768 957 980

Imports for consumption 7 8 9 9 10

Exports 74 66 87 68 72

Consumption, apparent

765 628 690 898 920

Price, average value, dollars per ton, f.o.b. plant 290 280 360 330 340

Employment, mine and plant, number

345 350 360 370 370

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption E E E E E

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 75%; Mexico, 11%; Germany, 9%; Japan, 2%; and other, 3%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Siliceous fossil meals, including diatomite 2512.00.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The amount of domestically produced diatomite sold or used by producers in 2019

increased slightly compared with that of 2018. Apparent domestic consumption increased slightly in 2019 to an

estimated 920,000 tons; exports increased by an estimated 6%. The United States remained the leading global

producer and consumer of diatomite. Filtration (including the purification of beer, liquors, and wine and the cleansing

of greases and oils) continued to be the leading end use for diatomite, also known as diatomaceous earth. An

important application for diatomite is the removal of microbial contaminants, such as bacteria, protozoa, and viruses

in public water systems. Other applications for diatomite include filtration of human blood plasma, pharmaceutical

processing, and use as a nontoxic insecticide. Domestically, diatomite used in the production of cement was the

second-ranked use.

Prepared by Robert D. Crangle, Jr. [(703) 648–6410, rcrangle@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

DIATOMITE

In 2019, the United States was the leading producer of diatomite, accounting for an estimated 34% of total world

production, followed by Denmark and China with 15% each, Turkey with 6%, the Republic of Korea with 5%, Peru

with 4%, and Mexico with 3%. Smaller quantities of diatomite were mined in 23 additional countries.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production Reserves

2018

2019

United States

957 980 250,000

Argentina 70 70 NA

China 420 420 110,000

Denmark

(processed) 440 440 NA

France 75 80 NA

Germany 52 50 NA

Japan 40 40 NA

Korea, Republic of 134 130 NA

Mexico 96 100 NA

New Zealand 40 40 NA

Peru 110 110 NA

Russia 47 50 NA

Spain 50 50 NA

Turkey 170 170 44,000

Other countries 143 170 NA

World total (rounded) 2,840 2,900 Large

World Resources: Diatomite deposits form from an accumulation of amorphous hydrous silica cell walls of dead

diatoms in oceanic and fresh waters. Diatomite is also known as kieselguhr (Germany), tripolite (after an occurrence

near Tripoli, Libya), and moler (an impure Danish form). Because U.S. diatomite occurrences are at or near Earth’s

surface, recovery from most deposits is achieved through low-cost, open pit mining. Outside the United States,

however, underground mining is fairly common owing to deposit location and topographic constraints. World

resources of crude diatomite are adequate for the foreseeable future.

Substitutes: Many materials can be substituted for diatomite. However, the unique properties of diatomite assure its

continued use in many applications. Expanded perlite and silica sand compete for filtration. Filters made from

manufactured materials, notably ceramic, polymeric, or carbon membrane filters and filters made with cellulose fibers,

are becoming competitive as filter media. Alternate filler materials include clay, ground limestone, ground mica,

ground silica sand, perlite, talc, and vermiculite. For thermal insulation, materials such as various clays, exfoliated

vermiculite, expanded perlite, mineral wool, and special brick can be used. Transportation costs will continue to

determine the maximum economic distance that most forms of diatomite may be shipped and still remain competitive

with alternative materials.

Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available.

Processed ore sold or used by producers.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Includes sales of moler production.

FELDSPAR AND NEPHELINE SYENITE

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: U.S. feldspar production in 2019 had an estimated value of $46 million. The three

leading companies mined and processed about 80% of production; four other companies supplied the remainder.

Producing States were North Carolina, California, Oklahoma, Virginia, and Idaho, in descending order of estimated

tonnage. Feldspar processors reported joint product recovery of mica and silica sand. Nepheline syenite produced in

the United States was not included in production figures because the material was not considered to be marketable

as a flux and was mostly used in construction applications.

Feldspar is ground to about 20 mesh for glassmaking and to 200 mesh or finer for most ceramic and filler

applications. It was estimated that domestically produced feldspar was transported by ship, rail, or truck to at least 30

States and to foreign destinations, including Canada and Mexico. In pottery and glass, feldspar and nepheline syenite

function as a flux. The estimated 2019 end-use distribution of domestic feldspar and nepheline syenite was glass,

about 65%, and ceramic tile, pottery, and other uses, 35%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, marketable

520 470 440 550 470

Imports for consumption:

Feldspar 120 37 290 181 75

Nepheline syenite 449 572 1,460 1,070 500

Exports, feldspar 15 6 5 4 5

Consumption, apparent

1, 2

Feldspar only 630 510 730 720 540

Feldspar and nepheline syenite 1,100 1,100 2,200 1,800 1,000

Price, average value, dollars per ton:

Feldspar only, marketable production 71 69 64 97 97

Nepheline syenite, import value 150 128 61 76 157

Employment, mine, preparation plant,

and office, number

270 250 240 240 240

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption:

Feldspar 17 6 39 24 13

Nepheline syenite 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Feldspar and nepheline syenite are not recycled by producers; however, glass container producers use

cullet (recycled container glass), thereby reducing feldspar and nepheline syenite consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): Feldspar: Turkey, 98%; and other, 2%. Nepheline syenite: Canada, 100%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Feldspar 2529.10.0000 Free.

Nepheline syenite 2529.30.0010 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, domestic production and sales of feldspar decreased by almost 15% and the

average unit value of sales was virtually unchanged from that of 2018. Imports of feldspar and nepheline syenite

decreased substantially in 2019 and appear to have returned to the levels of imports prior to the unusually high level

of 2017. A company based in Canada continued development of a feldspar-quartz-kaolin project in Idaho that

contained high-grade potassium feldspar. In March 2019, the company amended project development plans to open

a smaller than initially planned operation, with production expected to be about 30,000 tons per year of potassium

feldspar during a 25-year mine life. For several years, the operation has produced a low-iron and trace-element

feldspathic sand product from old mine tailings, which was sold to ceramic tile producers.

Prepared by Zachary T. Ghalayini [Contact Joyce A. Ober, (703) 648–7717, [email protected]]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

FELDSPAR AND NEPHELINE SYENITE

Domestic feldspar consumption has been gradually shifting toward glass from ceramics. A growing segment in the

glass industry was solar glass, used in the production of solar panels. Glass, including beverage containers (more

than one-half of the feldspar consumed by the glass industry), plate glass, and fiberglass insulation for housing and

building construction, continued to be the leading end use of feldspar in the United States.

In the United States, residential construction, in which feldspar is a raw material commonly used in the manufacture of

plate glass, ceramic tiles and sanitaryware, and insulation, slowed down during the first 9 months of 2019 compared

with the same period in 2018.

A company based in Canada continued development of its White Mountain high-purity calcium feldspar (anorthosite)

deposit in southwestern Greenland; the construction of all necessary facilities was finished in 2018. Upon completion

of the electrical components and the road to the port facility, the company began shipping products to customers in

August 2019. Owing to the feldspar’s purity and tests, which indicate an alumina recovery of greater than 90%, the

company is targeting its product as a replacement for bauxite as a primary source of alumina. In addition, this high-

purity calcium feldspar is targeted to compete with kaolin in the production of electrical-grade glass (E-glass)

fiberglass and kaolin and premium nepheline syenite in the filler market for paint and clear-coating formulations and

polymers.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Reserves data for Thailand were revised based on Government

information.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States

550 470 NA

Brazil (beneficiated marketable) 400 400 150,000

China 2,000 2,000 NA

Czechia 449 460 23,000

Egypt 400 400 1,000,000

India 4,000 4,000 320,000

Iran 750 750 630,000

Italy 4,000 4,000 NA

Korea, Republic of 617 650 240,000

Malaysia 420 420 NA

Spain (includes pegmatites) 600 600 NA

Thailand 1,500 1,600 235,000

Turkey 7,500 7,500 240,000

Other countries 2,380 2,400 NA

World total (rounded) 25,600 26,000 Large

World Resources: Identified and undiscovered resources of feldspar are more than adequate to meet anticipated

world demand. Quantitative data on resources of feldspar existing in feldspathic sands, granites, and pegmatites

generally have not been compiled. Ample geologic evidence indicates that resources are large, although not always

conveniently accessible to the principal centers of consumption.

Substitutes: Imported nepheline syenite was the major alternative material for feldspar. Feldspar can be replaced in

some of its end uses by clays, electric furnace slag, feldspar-silica mixtures, pyrophyllite, spodumene, or talc.

Estimated. NA Not available.

Rounded to two significant digits to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

Feldspar only.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

FLUORSPAR

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, minimal fluorspar (calcium fluoride, CaF

) was produced in the United

States. One company sold fluorspar from stockpiles produced as a byproduct of its limestone quarrying operation in

Cave-in-Rock, IL. Synthetic fluorspar may have been recovered as a byproduct of petroleum alkylation, stainless steel

pickling, or uranium processing, but no data were collected from any of these operations. An estimated 17,000 tons of

fluorosilicic acid (FSA), equivalent to about 27,000 tons of fluorspar grading 100%, was recovered from four

phosphoric acid plants processing phosphate rock. Fluorosilicic acid was used primarily in water fluoridation.

U.S. fluorspar consumption was satisfied by imports and small quantities of byproduct synthetic fluorspar.

Domestically, production of hydrofluoric acid (HF) in Louisiana and Texas was by far the leading use for acid-grade

fluorspar. Hydrofluoric acid is the primary feedstock for the manufacture of virtually all fluorine-bearing chemicals,

particularly refrigerants and fluoropolymers, and is also a key ingredient in the processing of aluminum and uranium.

Fluorspar was also used in cement production, in enamels, as a flux in steelmaking, in glass manufacture, in iron and

steel casting, and in welding rod coatings.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Finished, metallurgical grade NA NA NA NA NA

Fluorspar equivalent from phosphate rock 105 72 64 27 27

Imports for consumption:

Acid grade 328 328 331 381 370

Metallurgical grade 48 55 70 78 70

Total fluorspar imports 376 383 401 459 440

Hydrofluoric acid 120 126 123 122 130

Aluminum fluoride 32 20 21 26 39

Cryolite 19 16 10 17 22

Exports, all grades 14 12 11 9 7

Consumption

Apparent

362 371 390 450 430

Reported W W W W W

Price, average value of imports

Cost, insurance, and freight, dollars per ton:

Acid grade 289 273 267 276 300

Metallurgical grade 249 233 237 258 270

Stocks, yearend, consumer and dealer

150

150 NA NA NA

Employment, mine, number

5 4 4 3 3

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Synthetic fluorspar may be produced from neutralization of waste in the enrichment of uranium, petroleum

alkylation, and stainless steel pickling; however, undesirable impurities constrain use. Primary aluminum producers

recycle HF and fluorides from smelting operations.

Import Sources (2015–18): Mexico, 66%; Vietnam, 13%; South Africa, 8%; China, 6%; and other, 7%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Metallurgical grade (less than 97% CaF

) 2529.21.0000 Free.

Acid grade (97% or more CaF

) 2529.22.0000 Free.

Natural cryolite 2530.90.1000 Free.

Hydrogen fluoride (hydrofluoric acid) 2811.11.0000 Free.

Aluminum fluoride 2826.12.0000 Free.

Synthetic cryolite 2826.30.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Michele E. McRae [(703) 648–7743, mmcrae@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

FLUORSPAR

Events, Trends, and Issues: In recent years, several of the world’s leading mines have been operating at or near full

capacity. Further, there have been increasing concerns about the possibility of China becoming a net fluorspar

importer owing to increased environmental regulation of its mining industry. Although there is little reliable information

on China’s fluorspar production, China’s reported imports of fluorspar increased by approximately 350,000 tons from

2017 to 2018, and by an estimated 100,000 tons in 2019; imports were primarily from Mongolia and new production in

Burma. New producers in Canada, Morocco, and South Africa were also ramping up production in 2019.

A hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) plant in Corpus Christi, TX, went into operation in February. HFO manufacturers continued

to introduce HFOs and blends as low global-warming-potential alternatives to hydrofluorocarbon-based foam-blowing

agents, propellants, and refrigerants, which are subject to increased restrictions under the Montreal Protocol.

Because refrigerant gases are a leading downstream use of HF, the HFO plant, along with a similar plant in Baton

Rouge, LA, that went into operation in 2017, were expected to support strong demand for fluorspar in the United

States.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Brazil and Spain were revised based on updated data from

Government sources, and reserves for Morocco were revised based on company-reported information.

Mine production Reserves

4, 5

2018 2019

United States NA NA 4,000

Argentina 14 14 NA

Brazil 26 18 1,400

Burma 70 44 NA

Canada 20 110 NA

China 4,000 4,000 42,000

Germany 45 45 NA

Iran 70 55 3,400

Mexico 1,080 1,200 68,000

Mongolia 605 670 22,000

Morocco 65 100 320

South Africa 242 240 41,000

Spain 145 140 10,000

Thailand 48 50 3,600

United Kingdom 11 21 4,000

Vietnam 239 240 5,000

Other countries 40 41 110,000

World total (rounded) 6,720 7,000 310,000

World Resources: Enormous quantities of fluorine are present in phosphate rock. Current U.S. reserves of

phosphate rock are estimated to be 1 billion tons, containing about 72 million tons of 100% fluorspar equivalent

assuming an average fluorine content of 3.5% in the phosphate rock. World reserves of phosphate rock are estimated

to be 70 billion tons, equivalent to about 5 billion tons of 100% fluorspar equivalent.

Substitutes: Fluorosilicic acid is used to produce aluminum fluoride (AlF

), but because of differing physical

properties, AlF

produced from FSA is not readily substituted for AlF

produced from fluorspar. Fluorosilicic acid has

been used to produce HF, but this practice has not been widely adopted. Synthetic fluorspar could potentially be

recovered by the Department of Energy’s two depleted uranium hexafluoride conversion plants in Paducah, KY, and

Portsmouth, OH. However, the preferred product is currently aqueous HF rather than fluorspar. Aluminum smelting

dross, borax, calcium chloride, iron oxides, manganese ore, silica sand, and titanium dioxide have been used as

substitutes for fluorspar fluxes.

Estimated. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Defined as total fluorspar imports – exports.

Industry stocks for leading consumers and fluorspar distributors.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Measured as 100% calcium fluoride.

GALLIUM

(Data in kilograms of gallium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: No domestic primary (low-grade, unrefined) gallium has been recovered since 1987.

Globally, primary gallium is recovered as a byproduct of processing bauxite and zinc ores. One company in Utah

recovered and refined high-purity gallium from imported low-grade primary gallium metal and new scrap. Imports of

gallium metal and gallium arsenide (GaAs) wafers were valued at about $700,000 and $170 million, respectively.

GaAs was used to manufacture integrated circuits (ICs) and optoelectronic devices, which include laser diodes, light-

emitting diodes (LEDs), photodetectors, and solar cells. Gallium nitride (GaN) principally was used to manufacture

optoelectronic devices. ICs accounted for 73% of domestic gallium consumption, optoelectronic devices accounted

for 25%, and research and development accounted for 2%. About 81% of the gallium consumed in the United States

was contained in GaAs, GaN, and gallium phosphide (GaP) wafers. Gallium metal, triethyl gallium, and trimethyl

gallium, used in the epitaxial layering process to fabricate epiwafers for the production of LEDs and ICs, accounted

for most of the remainder. Optoelectronic devices were used in aerospace applications, consumer goods, industrial

equipment, medical equipment, and telecommunications equipment. Uses of ICs included defense applications, high-

performance computers, and telecommunications equipment.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, primary — — — — —

Imports for consumption:

Metal 28,600 10,500 20,200 32,000 3,000

Gallium arsenide wafers (gross weight) 2,690,000 1,290,000 804,000 446,000 340,000

Exports NA NA NA NA NA

Consumption, reported

29,700 18,100 17,900 15,000 15,000

Price, imports, dollars per kilogram:

High-purity, refined

317 690 477 508 570

Low-purity, primary

188 125 124 185 150

Stocks, consumer, yearend 3,280 2,720 2,840 2,920 1,920

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of reported consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Old scrap, none. Substantial quantities of new scrap generated in the manufacture of GaAs-based

devices were reprocessed to recover high-purity gallium at one facility in Utah.

Import Sources (2015–18): Metal: China

, 50%; United Kingdom, 18%; Germany, 10%; Ukraine, 9%; and other,

13%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Gallium arsenide wafers, doped 3818.00.0010 Free.

Gallium metal 8112.92.1000 3.0% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Imports of gallium metal and GaAs wafers continued to account for all U.S.

consumption of gallium. In 2019, gallium metal imports decreased by about 90% from those of 2018, most likely

owing to the introduction of higher import tariffs on gallium from China and the 300% increase of gallium imports from

China in 2018 before the tariffs were introduced. Gallium stockpiling in 2018 may have been prompted by the

discussion of China’s potential tariffs.

Primary low-grade (99.99%-pure) gallium prices in China decreased by about 7% in 2019. Low-grade gallium prices

worldwide continued to decline as China’s primary low-grade gallium production continued to exceed worldwide

consumption despite reduced production. The average monthly price for low-grade gallium in China decreased to

$145 per kilogram throughout 2019 from approximately $155 per kilogram at yearend 2018. China’s primary low-

grade gallium production capacity has expanded to approximately 600 tons per year since 2016 from 140 tons per

year in 2010. China accounted for more than 80% of worldwide low-grade gallium capacity.

Prepared by Brian W. Jaskula [(703) 648–4908, bjaskula@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

GALLIUM

Low-grade primary gallium producers outside of China most likely restricted output owing to a large surplus of primary

gallium. These producers included Japan, the Republic of Korea, Russia, and Ukraine. Germany and Kazakhstan

ceased primary production in 2016 and 2013, respectively.

Primary high-purity refined gallium production in 2019 was estimated to be about 205 tons. China, Japan, Slovakia,

and the United States were the known principal producers of high-purity refined gallium. The United Kingdom ceased

high-purity gallium production in 2018. Gallium was recovered from new scrap in Canada, China, Germany, Japan,

Slovakia, and the United States. World primary low-grade gallium production capacity in 2019 was estimated to be

720 tons per year; high-purity refinery capacity, 330 tons per year; and secondary capacity, 270 tons per year.

In 2018, the value of worldwide radio frequency (RF) GaAs device consumption increased slightly to $8.9 billion

owing to a growing wireless telecommunications infrastructure in Asia; growth of third- and fourth-generation (3G and

4G) “smartphones,” which employ up to 10 times the amount of GaAs in standard cellular handsets; and robust use in

military radar and communications applications. Global GaAs wafer consumption by volume increased by 17% in

2019, with an estimated 50% and 40% of wafers used in LED and RF applications, respectively. Countries within the

Asia and the Pacific region dominated the GaAs wafer market. Owing to their large power-handling capabilities, high-

switching frequencies, and higher voltage capabilities, GaN-based products, which historically have been used in

defense applications, continued to be used in cable television transmission, commercial wireless infrastructure, power

electronics, and satellite markets. The GaN RF device market was estimated to be $750 million in 2019, an increase

of 15% from the revised $650 million in 2018.

The global high-power LED market was estimated to be $13.3 billion in 2019, an increase of 5.3% from that in 2018.

LED manufacturing capacity in Asia increased significantly in 2018 and 2019 owing to China’s Government-instituted

incentives to increase LED production. China’s increased LED production outpaced worldwide consumption and LED

prices declined.

World Production and Reserves:

Primary production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — — Quantitative estimates of reserves are not

China 397,000 310,000 available.

Japan 3,000 3,000

Korea, Republic of 3,000 3,000

Russia 6,000 4,000

Ukraine 4,000 4,000

World total (rounded) 413,000 320,000

World Resources: Gallium occurs in very small concentrations in ores of other metals. Most gallium is produced as a

byproduct of processing bauxite and the remainder is produced from zinc-processing residues. The average gallium

content of bauxite is 50 parts per million. U.S. bauxite deposits consist mainly of subeconomic resources that are not

generally suitable for alumina production owing to their high silica content. Some domestic zinc ores contain up to 50

parts per million gallium and could be a significant resource, although no gallium is currently recovered from domestic

ores. Gallium contained in world resources of bauxite is estimated to exceed 1 million tons, and a considerable

quantity could be contained in world zinc resources. However, less than 10% of the gallium in bauxite and zinc

resources is potentially recoverable.

Substitutes: Liquid crystals made from organic compounds are used in visual displays as substitutes for LEDs.

Silicon-based complementary metal-oxide semiconductor power amplifiers compete with GaAs power amplifiers in

midtier 3G cellular handsets. Indium phosphide components can be substituted for GaAs-based infrared laser diodes

in some specific-wavelength applications, and helium-neon lasers compete with GaAs in visible laser diode

applications. Silicon is the principal competitor with GaAs in solar-cell applications. GaAs-based ICs are used in many

defense-related applications because of their unique properties, and no effective substitutes exist for GaAs in these

applications. GaAs in heterojunction bipolar transistors is being replaced in some applications by silicon-germanium.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Estimated based on the average values of U.S. imports for 99.9999%- and 99.99999%-pure gallium.

Estimated based on the average values of U.S. imports for 99.99%-pure gallium.

Defined as imports – exports. Excludes gallium arsenide wafers.

Includes Hong Kong.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

GARNET (INDUSTRIAL)

(Data in metric tons of garnet unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, garnet for industrial use was mined by four firms—one in Idaho, one in

Montana, and two in New York. One processing facility operated in Pennsylvania and another opened in Oregon in

June. The estimated value of crude garnet production was about $21 million, and refined material sold or used had an

estimated value of $62 million. The major end uses of garnet were, in descending percentage of consumption, for

abrasive blasting, water-filtration media, water-jet-assisted cutting, and other end uses, such as in abrasive powders,

nonslip coatings, and sandpaper. Domestic industries that consume garnet include aircraft and motor vehicle

manufacturers, ceramics and glass producers, electronic component manufacturers, filtration plants, glass polishing,

the petroleum industry, shipbuilders, textile stonewashing, and wood-furniture-finishing operations.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production (crude) 77,200 81,300 92,900 101,000 93,000

Production (refined, sold or used) 47,200 46,600 84,100 166,000 140,000

Imports for consumption

e, 2

212,000 156,000 54,200 254,000 180,000

Exports

11,000 10,100 17,700 14,200 12,000

Consumption, apparent

e, 3

278,000 227,000 129,000 341,000 260,000

Price, average value, dollars per ton, import 230 200 300 210 250

Stocks, yearend NA NA NA NA NA

Employment, mine and mill, number

110 110 140 170 160

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption 72 64 28 70 64

Recycling: Garnet was recycled in Pennsylvania at a plant with a recycling capacity of 25,000 tons per year and at a

new plant in Oregon, with a recycling capacity of 16,000 tons per year, that opened in June 2019. Garnet can be

recycled multiple times without degradation of its quality. Most recycled garnet is from blast cleaning and water-jet-

assisted cutting operations.

Import Sources (2015–18):

Australia, 30%; India, 30%; South Africa, 26%; China, 10%; and other, 4%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Emery, natural corundum, natural garnet,

and other natural abrasives, crude 2513.20.1000 Free.

Emery, natural corundum, natural

garnet, and other natural abrasives,

other than crude 2513.20.9000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: During 2019, estimated domestic production of crude garnet concentrates decreased

by 8% compared with production in 2018. U.S. garnet production was estimated to be about 8% of total global garnet

production. The 2019 estimated domestic sales or use of refined garnet decreased by 12% compared with sales in

2018. This decrease was thought to have taken place because of high quantities of industry stocks of garnet and

decreased crude garnet production and imports into the United States.

Prepared by Kenneth C. Curry [(703) 648–7793, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

GARNET (INDUSTRIAL)

Garnet imports in 2019 were estimated to have decreased by 29% compared with those in 2018. Most of the

decrease was attributed to a lack of imports of garnet from South Africa, owing to the Pennsylvania processing facility

reaching its storage capacity. Imports from India remained steady and continued to recover from previous export

restrictions. Imports from China increased and somewhat offset the decrease from South Africa. In 2019, the average

unit value of garnet imports was $250 per ton, an increase of 19% compared with the average unit value in 2018. In

the United States, most domestically produced crude garnet concentrate was priced at about $230 per ton. U.S.

exports in 2019 were estimated to have decreased by 15%.

The United States consumed about 22% of global garnet production and world production of garnet decreased by 4%

in 2019. Garnet production increased in Australia and China; garnet production decreased in India and South Africa.

The garnet market is very competitive. To increase profitability and remain competitive with imported material,

production may be restricted to only high-grade garnet ores or as a byproduct of other salable mineral products that

occur with garnet, such as kyanite, marble, metallic ores, mica minerals, sillimanite, staurolite, or wollastonite.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Data for China were revised based on a new data source, which nearly

tripled estimated production compared with previously published data.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 101,000 93,000 5,000,000

Australia 360,000 400,000 Moderate to Large

China 290,000 310,000 Moderate to Large

India 162,000 150,000 13,000,000

South Africa 278,000 190,000 NA

Other countries 60,000 60,000 6,500,000

World total (rounded) 1,250,000 1,200,000 Moderate to Large

World Resources: World resources of garnet are large and occur in a wide variety of rocks, particularly gneisses and

schists. Garnet also occurs in contact-metamorphic deposits in crystalline limestones, pegmatites, serpentinites, and

vein deposits. In addition, alluvial garnet is present in many heavy-mineral sand and gravel deposits throughout the

world. Large domestic resources of garnet also are concentrated in coarsely crystalline gneiss near North Creek, NY;

other significant domestic resources of garnet occur in Idaho, Maine, Montana, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and

Oregon. In addition to those in the United States, major garnet deposits exist in Australia, Canada, China, India, and

South Africa, where they are mined for foreign and domestic markets; deposits in Russia and Turkey also have been

mined in recent years, primarily for internal markets. Additional garnet resources are in Chile, Czechia, Pakistan,

Spain, Thailand, and Ukraine; small mining operations have been reported in most of these countries.

Substitutes: Other natural and manufactured abrasives can substitute to some extent for all major end uses of

garnet. In many cases, however, using the substitutes would entail sacrifices in quality or cost. Fused aluminum oxide

and staurolite compete with garnet as a sandblasting material. Ilmenite, magnetite, and plastics compete as filtration

media. Corundum, diamond, and fused aluminum oxide compete for lens grinding and for many lapping operations.

Emery is a substitute in nonskid surfaces. Fused aluminum oxide, quartz sand, and silicon carbide compete for the

finishing of plastics, wood furniture, and other products.

Estimated. NA Not available.

Excludes gem and synthetic garnet.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau and Trade Mining, LLC; adjusted by U.S. Geological Survey.

Defined as crude production + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

GEMSTONES

(Data in million dollars unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: The combined value of U.S. natural and synthetic gemstone output in 2019 was an

estimated $65 million, a 9% increase compared with that of 2018. Domestic gemstone production included agate,

beryl, coral, diamond, garnet, jade, jasper, opal, pearl, quartz, sapphire, shell, topaz, tourmaline, turquoise, and many

other gem materials. In decreasing order of production value, Arizona, Oregon, Nevada, California, Montana, Maine,

Arkansas, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, North Carolina, Tennessee, and New York produced 96% of U.S. natural

gemstones. Synthetic gemstones were manufactured by four firms in North Carolina, California, Maryland, and

Arizona, in decreasing order of production value. Major gemstone uses were carvings, gem and mineral collections,

and jewelry.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Natural

8.5 11.7 9.2 9.5 10

Laboratory-created (synthetic) 55.1 54.9 55.1 50.0 55

Imports for consumption 25,100 25,200 24,900 27,700 26,000

Exports, excluding reexports 3,030 2,940 2,440 1,850 1,200

Consumption, apparent

22,100 22,300 22,500 25,900 25,000

Price Variable, depending on size, type, and quality

Employment, mine, number

1,100 1,120 1,120 1,120 1,120

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption 99 99 99 99 99

Recycling: Gemstones are often recycled by being resold as estate jewelry, reset, or recut, but this report does not

account for those stones.

Import Sources (2015–18 by value): Diamond: India, 37%; Israel, 33%; Belgium, 14%; South Africa, 4%; and other,

12%. Typically, diamond imports account for 90% to 95% of the total value of gem imports.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Coral and similar materials, unworked 0508.00.0000 Free.

Imitation gemstones 3926.90.4000 2.8% ad val.

Pearls, imitation, pearl beads, not strung 7018.10.1000 4.0% ad val.

Imitation gemstones, glass beads 7018.10.2000 Free.

Pearls, natural, graded and temporarily strung 7101.10.3000 Free.

Pearls, natural, other 7101.10.6000 Free.

Pearls, cultured 7101.21.0000 Free.

Diamonds, unworked or sawn 7102.31.0000 Free.

Diamonds, ½ carat or less 7102.39.0010 Free.

Diamonds, cut, more than ½ carat 7102.39.0050 Free.

Other nondiamond gemstones, unworked 7103.10.2000 Free.

Other nondiamond gemstones, uncut 7103.10.4000 10.5% ad val.

Rubies, cut 7103.91.0010 Free.

Sapphires, cut 7103.91.0020 Free.

Emeralds, cut 7103.91.0030 Free.

Other nondiamond gemstones, cut 7103.99.1000 Free.

Other nondiamond gemstones, worked 7103.99.5000 10.5% ad val.

Synthetic gemstones, cut but not set 7104.90.1000 Free.

Synthetic gemstones, other 7104.90.5000 6.4% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, U.S. imports for consumption of gem-quality diamonds were estimated to be

about $23 billion, which was an 8% decrease compared with $25.1 billion in 2018. U.S. imports for consumption of

natural, nondiamond gemstones were estimated to be about $3.0 billion, which was a 14% increase compared with

$2.64 billion in 2018. U.S. synthetic gemstone production increased by 10% compared with that in 2018. The increase

Prepared by Donald W. Olson [(703) 648–7721, dolson@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

GEMSTONES

in synthetic production was because of the combination of a 5% increase in the value of U.S. synthetic diamond

production and a 16% increase in the value of U.S. synthetic moissanite production compared with those of 2018. No

synthetic diamond production was reported in South Carolina during 2019.

The United States accounted for more than 35% of the world’s diamond consumption and was once again the leading

global market in terms of consumer demand. The United States is expected to continue to dominate global gemstone

demand. Consumption also increased in Asia. During the first three quarters of 2019, globally, the leading gemstone

sales by value were diamond, emerald, ruby, sapphire, and tanzanite. Worldwide rough gem-grade diamond sales

decreased by 39% during the first three quarters compared with the same period of 2018.

Total world diamond production during 2019 increased slightly from 2018 levels. Production is expected to continue to

remain steady in the near term and then decline slightly, until 2025, when several large mines are expected to reach

the end of their mine life, and only a few new projects are being developed.

World Gem Diamond Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States (

) (

) World reserves of diamond-bearing

Angola 7,570 7,500 deposits are substantial. No reserves

Australia 281 280 data are available for other gemstones.

Botswana 17,100 18,000

Brazil 251 250

Canada 23,200 23,000

China 99 100

Congo (Kinshasa) 3,030 3,000

Guinea 234 240

Lesotho 1,290 1,300

Namibia 2,400 2,500

Russia 24,200 25,000

Sierra Leone 590 600

South Africa 7,930 8,000

Tanzania 328 400

Zimbabwe 326 400

Other countries 242 400

World total (rounded) 89,000 91,000

World Resources: Most diamond-bearing ore bodies have a diamond content that ranges from less than 1 carat per

ton to about 6 carats per ton of ore. The major diamond reserves are in southern Africa, Australia, Canada, and

Russia.

Substitutes: Glass, plastics, and other materials are substituted for natural gemstones. Synthetic gemstones

(manufactured materials that have the same chemical and physical properties as natural gemstones) are common

substitutes. Simulants (materials that appear to be gems but differ in chemical and physical characteristics) also are

frequently substituted for natural gemstones.

Estimated.

Excludes industrial diamond and industrial garnet. See Diamond (Industrial) and Garnet (Industrial).

Estimated minimum production.

Includes production of freshwater shell.

Defined as production (natural and synthetic) + imports – exports (excluding reexports).

Defined as imports – exports (excluding reexports).

Data in thousands of carats of gem diamond.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Less than ½ unit.

GERMANIUM

(Data in kilograms of germanium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, zinc concentrates containing germanium were produced at mines in

Alaska, Tennessee, and Washington. Germanium-containing concentrates in Alaska and Washington were exported

to a refinery in Canada for processing and germanium recovery. A zinc smelter in Clarksville, TN, produced and

exported germanium leach concentrates recovered from processing zinc concentrates from the Middle Tennessee

Mines. Germanium in the form of compounds and metal was imported into the United States for further processing by

industry. A company in Utah produced germanium wafers for solar cells used in satellites from imported and recycled

germanium. A refinery in Oklahoma recovered germanium from industry-generated scrap and produced germanium

tetrachloride for the production of fiber optics. Although the consumption quantity was estimated to have remained

level in 2019 compared with that in 2018, the estimated value of germanium consumed in 2019, based on the annual

average germanium metal price, was $37 million, about 20% less than that in 2018.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016

2017

2018

2019

Production:

Primary refinery — — — — —

Secondary refinery W W W W W

Imports for consumption:

Germanium metal 20,100 11,000 11,100 11,800 14,000

Germanium dioxide

14,300 15,200 12,000 12,400 13,000

Total exports

5,000 4,780 3,670 4,880 3,300

Shipments from Government stockpile — — — — —

Consumption, estimated

34,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000

Price, annual average, dollars per kilogram:

Germanium metal 1,792 1,087 1,082 1,543 1,240

Germanium dioxide 1,211 830 731 1,084 920

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

estimated consumption >75% >50% >50% >50% >50%

Recycling: Worldwide, about 30% of the total germanium consumed is produced from recycled materials. During the

manufacture of most optical devices, more than 60% of the germanium metal used is routinely recycled as new scrap.

Germanium scrap is also recovered from the windows in decommissioned tanks and other military vehicles. The

United States has the capability to recycle new and old scrap.

Import Sources (2015–18):

Germanium metal: China, 59%; Belgium, 22%; Germany, 9%; Russia, 7%; and other,

3%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Germanium oxides and zirconium dioxide 2825.60.0000 3.7% ad val.

Metal, unwrought 8112.92.6000 2.6% ad val.

Metal, powder 8112.92.6500 4.4% ad val.

Metal, wrought 8112.99.1000 4.4% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile:

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Germanium metal 14,004 — — — —

Germanium scrap (gross weight) 3,794 — 5,000 — 3,000

Germanium wafers (each) 68,671 — — — —

Events, Trends, and Issues: The major global end uses for germanium were electronics and solar applications,

fiber-optic systems, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, and other uses (such as chemotherapy, metallurgy, and

phosphors). Germanium-containing infrared optics were primarily for military use, but the commercial applications for

thermal-imaging devices that use germanium lenses have increased during the past few years.

Prepared by Amy C. Tolcin [(703) 648–4940, atolcin@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

GERMANIUM

The 2019 estimated average annual prices of germanium dioxide and germanium metal decreased by 15% and 20%,

respectively, from prices in 2018; however, the 2019 average annual prices remained higher than those in 2016 and

2017. Global demand for fiber-optic cable was thought to have decreased in 2019 compared with that in 2018 owing

to a slowdown in the rollout of fifth-generation cellular network technology and reduced spending on cable installation

by major telecommunication companies. Fiber-optic cable manufacturing accounted for about one-third of global

germanium consumption.

A Canada-based mining company lifted a partial force majeure on its germanium sales in February. The company

imposed the partial force majeure in January 2018 after an explosion damaged a slag fuming furnace at its lead-zinc

refinery in Canada. During the 13-month period, the company was able to fulfill about 60% of its contract sales for

germanium.

According to China news sources, several germanium producers temporarily stopped production during the year

either for maintenance or in response to low germanium prices. Most notably, a leading germanium producer in

Yunnan Province reportedly shut down a 10,000-kilogram-per-year germanium metal production line in June. At full

production, the company produced between 40,000 and 50,000 kilograms per year of germanium metal. The

shutdown was expected to last 6 months. This company received nine Government subsidies totaling 3.6 million yuan

between January 1, 2019, and June 27, 2019.

In October, the Government of Yunnan Province, China, auctioned 92,300 kilograms of germanium metal, which was

previously held by the now-defunct Fanya Metal Exchange. Kunming Rongke New Material Co. Ltd. was awarded the

full quantity.

World Refinery Production and Reserves:

Refinery production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States W W Data on the recoverable germanium

China 94,900 85,000 content of zinc ores are not available.

Russia 6,000 6,000

Other countries

30,000 40,000

World total (rounded)

130,000 130,000

World Resources: The available resources of germanium are associated with certain zinc and lead-zinc-copper

sulfide ores. Substantial U.S. reserves of recoverable germanium are contained in zinc deposits in Alaska,

Tennessee, and Washington. Based on an analysis of zinc concentrates, U.S. reserves of zinc may contain as much

as 2,500 tons of germanium. Because zinc concentrates are shipped globally and blended at smelters, however, the

recoverable germanium in zinc reserves cannot be determined. On a global scale, as little as 3% of the germanium

contained in zinc concentrates is recovered. Significant amounts of germanium are contained in ash and flue dust

generated in the combustion of certain coals for power generation.

Substitutes: Silicon can be a less-expensive substitute for germanium in certain electronic applications. Some

metallic compounds can be substituted in high-frequency electronics applications and in some light-emitting-diode

applications. Zinc selenide and germanium glass substitute for germanium metal in infrared applications systems, but

often at the expense of performance. Antimony and titanium are substitutes for use as polymerization catalysts.

Estimated. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.

Data has been adjusted to exclude low-value shipments, then multiplied by 69% to account for germanium content.

Includes Schedule B numbers: 8112.92.6100, 8112.99.1000, and 2825.60.0000. Data have been adjusted to exclude low-value shipments. Oxide

data have been multiplied by 69% to account for germanium content.

Estimated consumption of germanium contained in metal and germanium dioxide.

Average European price for minimum 99.999% purity. Source: Argus Media group-Argus Metals International.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government stock changes.

Import sources are based on gross weight of wrought and unwrought germanium metal and germanium metal powders.

See Appendix B for definitions.

Includes primary and secondary production.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Includes Belgium, Canada, Germany, Japan, and Ukraine.

Excludes U.S. production.

GOLD

(Data in metric tons

of gold content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, domestic gold mine production was estimated to be about 200 tons, 11%

less than that in 2018, and the value was estimated to be about $9.0 billion. Gold was produced in 12 States at more

than 40 lode mines, at several large placer mines in Alaska, and numerous smaller placer mines (mostly in Alaska

and in the Western States). About 7% of domestic gold was recovered as a byproduct of processing domestic base-

metal ores, chiefly copper ores. The top 27 operations yielded more than 99% of the mined gold produced in the

United States. Commercial-grade gold was produced at about 15 refineries. A few dozen companies, out of several

thousand companies and artisans, dominated the fabrication of gold into commercial products. U.S. jewelry

manufacturing was heavily concentrated in the New York, NY, and Providence, RI, areas, with lesser concentrations

in California, Florida, and Texas. Estimated domestic uses (excluding gold bullion bar) were jewelry, 50%; electrical

and electronics, 37%; official coins, 8%; and other, 5%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Mine 214 232 237 226 200

Refinery:

Primary 244 242 207 205 200

Secondary (new and old scrap) 238 220 119 117 130

Imports for consumption

265 374 255 213 170

Exports

478 393 461 474 350

Consumption, reported 165 169 150 160 150

Stocks, yearend, Treasury

8,140 8,140 8,140 8,140 8,140

Price, dollars per troy ounce

1,163 1,252 1,261 1,272 1,400

Employment, mine and mill, number

11,500 11,600 11,900 12,200 12,000

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption E E E E E

Recycling: In 2019, an estimated 130 tons of new and old scrap was recycled, equivalent to about 87% of reported

consumption. The domestic supply of gold from recycling increased by 11% compared with that in 2018.

Import Sources (2015–18):

Mexico, 26%; Canada, 22%; Peru, 13%; Colombia, 9%; and other, 30%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Precious metal ore and concentrates:

Gold content of silver ores 2616.10.0080 0.8¢/kg on lead content

Gold content of other ores 2616.90.0040 1.7¢/kg on lead content.

Gold bullion 7108.12.1013 Free.

Gold dore 7108.12.1020 Free.

Gold scrap 7112.91.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 15% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: The U.S. Department of the Treasury maintains stocks of gold (see salient statistics above),

and the U.S. Department of Defense administers a Governmentwide secondary precious-metals recovery program.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The estimated gold price in 2019 was 10% higher than the price in 2018 but was 16%

lower than the record-high annual price in 2012. The Engelhard daily price of gold in 2019 fluctuated through several

cycles. Early in the year the gold price was about $1,300 per troy ounce and started increasing at the end of May,

reaching a projected annual high of $1,547 per troy ounce in September. During this time, several factors were

reported to have spurred the increase in price: demand from central banks and investors increased; the U.S. Federal

Reserve Board cut interest rates; and trade negotiations halted between the United States and China. The price

started a downward trend in October and November.

Prepared by Kristin N. Sheaffer [(703) 648–4954, ks[email protected]v]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

GOLD

The11% decrease in domestic mine production in 2019 was attributed to decreases in production from the Bald

Mountain, Carlin, and Cortez Mines in Nevada and the Fort Knox and Pogo Mines in Alaska. In 2019, worldwide gold

mine production was estimated to be unchanged from that in 2018. Increased mine production in Australia, China,

and Indonesia offset decreased gold mine production in Peru, South Africa, the United States, and Zimbabwe.

In the first 9 months of 2019, domestic consumption of gold used in the production of coins and bars decreased by

more than 19%; however, gold consumption for jewelry increased slightly. Globally, gold consumption by the jewelry

industry decreased by 5% and gold used for the production of coins and bars decreased by 22% compared with that

in the first 9 months of 2018. Investments in gold-based exchange-traded funds were significantly higher in the United

States and globally during the same period. Also, gold holdings in central banks increased during the year.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Canada, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Peru, and

South Africa were revised based on Government and (or) industry reports.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 226 200 3,000

Argentina 72 72 1,600

Australia 315 330

10,000

Brazil 85 85 2,400

Canada 183 180 1,900

China 401 420 2,000

Ghana 127 130 1,000

Indonesia 135 160 2,600

Kazakhstan 100 100 1,000

Mexico 117 110 1,400

Papua New Guinea 67 70 1,000

Peru 143 130 2,100

Russia 311 310 5,300

South Africa 117 90 3,200

Uzbekistan 104 100 1,800

Other countries 797 800 10,000

World total (rounded) 3,300 3,300 50,000

World Resources: An assessment of U.S. gold resources indicated 33,000 tons of gold in identified (15,000 tons)

and undiscovered (18,000 tons) resources.

Nearly one-quarter of the gold in undiscovered resources was estimated

to be contained in porphyry copper deposits. The gold resources in the United States, however, are only a small

portion of global gold resources.

Substitutes: Base metals clad with gold alloys are widely used in electrical and electronic products, and in jewelry to

economize on gold; many of these products are continually redesigned to maintain high-utility standards with lower

gold content. Generally, palladium, platinum, and silver may substitute for gold.

Estimated. E Net exporter.

One metric ton (1,000 kilograms) = 32,150.7 troy ounces.

Refined bullion, dore, ores, concentrates, and precipitates. Excludes: Waste and scrap, official monetary gold, gold in fabricated items, gold in

coins, and net bullion flow (in tons) to market from foreign stocks at the New York Federal Reserve Bank.

Includes gold in Exchange Stabilization Fund. Stocks were valued at the official price of $42.22 per troy ounce.

Engelhard’s average gold price quotation for the year. In 2019, the price was estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey based on data from

January through November.

Data from the Mine Safety and Health Administration.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 3,900 tons.

U.S. Geological Survey National Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 2000, 1998 assessment of undiscovered deposits of gold, silver, copper,

lead, and zinc in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1178, 21 p.

GRAPHITE (NATURAL)

(Data in metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, natural graphite was not produced in the United States; however,

approximately 95 U.S. firms, primarily in the Great Lakes and Northeastern regions and Alabama and Tennessee,

consumed 52,000 tons valued at an estimated $44 million. The major uses of natural graphite were brake linings,

lubricants, powdered metals, refractory applications, and steelmaking. During 2019, U.S. natural graphite imports

were an estimated 58,000 tons, which were about 65% flake and high-purity, 34% amorphous, and 1% lump and chip

graphite.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, mine — — — — —

Imports for consumption 46,700 38,900 51,900 70,700 58,000

Exports 11,600 14,300 13,900 10,400 6,600

Consumption, apparent

35,100 24,700 38,000 60,300 52,000

Price, imports (average dollars per ton at foreign ports):

Flake 1,710 1,920 1,390 1,520 1,300

Lump and chip (Sri Lankan) 1,800 1,880 1,900 1,890 2,370

Amorphous 454 571 451 310 438

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Refractory brick and linings, alumina-graphite refractories for continuous metal castings, magnesia-

graphite refractory brick for basic oxygen and electric arc furnaces, and insulation brick led the way in the recycling of

graphite products. The market for recycled refractory graphite material is expanding, with material being recycled into

products such as brake linings and thermal insulation. Recovering high-quality flake graphite from steelmaking kish is

technically feasible, but currently not practiced. The abundance of graphite in the world market inhibits increased

recycling efforts. Information on the quantity and value of recycled graphite is not available.

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 33%; Mexico, 24%; Canada, 16%; India, 9%; and other, 18%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Crystalline flake (not including flake dust) 2504.10.1000 Free.

Powder 2504.10.5000 Free.

Other 2504.90.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic lump and amorphous), 14% (Domestic flake), and 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Worldwide consumption of graphite has steadily increased since 2013 and into 2019.

U.S. consumption has fluctuated over this time period. During 2015 and 2016, U.S. consumption decreased by 39%

and by 30%, respectively. In 2017 and 2018, consumption increased by 54% and by 59%, respectively, to its highest

point during the past 5 years. However, during 2019, consumption declined again by 14%.

In 2019, principal United States import sources of natural graphite were, in descending order of tonnage, China,

Mexico, Canada, Madagascar, Brazil, Mozambique, the United Kingdom, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Austria, which

combined accounted for 99% of the tonnage and 97% of the value of total United States imports. Mexico and China

provided most of the amorphous graphite, and Sri Lanka provided all the lump and chip dust variety.

During 2019, China produced more than 60% of the world’s graphite. Approximately 40% of production in China was

amorphous graphite and about 60% was flake. China does produce some large flake graphite, but the majority of its

flake graphite production is very small, in the +200-mesh range. North America produced only 4% of the world’s

graphite supply with production in Canada and Mexico. No production of natural graphite was reported in the United

States, but two companies were developing graphite projects—one in Alabama and one in Alaska.

Large graphite deposits were being developed in Madagascar, northern Mozambique, Namibia, and south-central

Tanzania. Some mines in Madagascar began ramping up production in 2018, and a mine in Tanzania started

sampling production beginning in 2017. A graphite mine project in Mozambique commenced operations at the start of

2018 and was ramping up production during 2018 and 2019 at a high-grade graphite deposit, which was reportedly

Prepared by Donald W. Olson [(703) 648–7721, dolson@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

GRAPHITE (NATURAL)

the largest natural graphite mine globally. The mine cut back production during 2019 in an effort to stabilize graphite

prices. The mine is expected to operate for 50 years.

During the first half of 2019, crystalline flake graphite prices declined to levels similar to those of midyear 2017. The

price decline was the result of oversupply, and some graphite mining companies cut back production in an effort to

stabilize and increase graphite prices.

A U.S. automaker continued to build a large plant to manufacture lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries. The plant’s

completion was projected for 2020. A portion of the plant was operational and battery packs were being assembled in

2018 and 2019. When the plant is complete, it was expected to require 35,200 tons per year of spherical graphite for

use as anode material for lithium-ion batteries.

New thermal technology and acid-leaching techniques have enabled the production of higher purity graphite powders

that are likely to lead to development of new applications for graphite in high-technology fields. Innovative refining

techniques have made the use of graphite possible in carbon-graphite composites, electronics, foils, friction materials,

and specialty lubricant applications. Flexible graphite product lines are likely to be the fastest growing market. Large-

scale fuel-cell applications are being developed that could consume as much graphite as all other uses combined.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Mozambique and Tanzania were revised based on information

reported by graphite-producing companies and the Governments of those countries.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — — (

)

Austria 1,000 1,000 (

)

Brazil 95,000 96,000 72,000,000

Canada 40,000 40,000 (

)

China 693,000 700,000 73,000,000

Germany 800 800 (

)

India 35,000 35,000 8,000,000

Korea, North 6,000 6,000 2,000,000

Madagascar 46,900 47,000 1,600,000

Mexico 9,000 9,000 3,100,000

Mozambique 104,000 100,000 25,000,000

Namibia 3,460 3,500 (

)

Norway 16,000 16,000 600,000

Pakistan 14,000 14,000 (

)

Russia 25,200 25,000 (

)

Sri Lanka 4,000 4,000 (

)

Tanzania 150 150 18,000,000

Turkey 2,000 2,000 90,000,000

Ukraine 20,000 20,000 (

)

Vietnam 5,000 5,000 7,600,000

Zimbabwe 2,000 2,000 (

)

Other 200 200 (

)

World total (rounded) 1,120,000 1,100,000 300,000,000

World Resources: Domestic resources of graphite are relatively small, but the rest of the world’s inferred resources

exceed 800 million tons of recoverable graphite.

Substitutes: Synthetic graphite powder, scrap from discarded machined shapes, and calcined petroleum coke

compete for use in iron and steel production. Synthetic graphite powder and secondary synthetic graphite from

machining graphite shapes compete for use in battery applications. Finely ground coke with olivine is a potential

competitor in foundry-facing applications. Molybdenum disulfide competes as a dry lubricant but is more sensitive to

oxidizing conditions.

Estimated. — Zero.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Included with “World total.”

GYPSUM

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, domestic production of crude gypsum was estimated to be 20 million tons

with a value of about $160 million. The leading crude gypsum-producing States, in alphabetical order, were estimated

to be Iowa, Kansas, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Texas, which together accounted for an estimated 64% of total output.

Overall, 47 companies produced or processed gypsum in the United States at 52 mines in 16 States. The majority of

domestic consumption, which totaled approximately 42 million tons, was used by agriculture, cement production, and

manufacturers of wallboard and plaster products. Small quantities of high-purity gypsum, used in a wide range of

industrial processes, accounted for the remaining tonnage. At the beginning of 2019, the production capacity of 63

operating gypsum panel manufacturing plants in the United States was about 34.1 billion square feet

per year. Total

wallboard sales were estimated to be 24.0 billion square feet.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015

2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Crude 18,800 19,800 20,700 21,100 20,000

Synthetic

15,500 16,700 20,700 16,600 16,000

Calcined

16,500 17,900 17,800 16,900 17,000

Wallboard products sold (million square feet

) 22,100 24,400 25,000 23,700 24,000

Imports, crude, including anhydrite 4,030 4,340 4,800 5,190 6,100

Exports, crude, not ground or calcined 63 43 36 36 38

Consumption, apparent

38,300 40,800 46,200 42,900 42,000

Price:

Average crude, free on board (f.o.b.) mine,

dollars per metric ton 7.80 8.00 7.50 8.30 8.00

Average calcined, f.o.b. plant, dollars per metric ton 28.00 30.00 30.00 32.00 32.00

Employment, mine and calcining plant, number

4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption 10 11 10 12 14

Recycling: Approximately 700,000 tons of gypsum scrap that was generated by wallboard manufacturing was

recycled onsite. The recycling of wallboard from new construction and demolition sources also took place, although

those amounts are unknown. Recycled gypsum was used primarily for agricultural purposes and feedstock for the

manufacture of new wallboard. Other potential markets for recycled gypsum include athletic field marking, cement

production (as a stucco additive), grease absorption, sludge drying, and water treatment.

Import Sources (2015–18): Mexico, 41%; Spain, 29%; Canada, 28%; and other, 2%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Gypsum; anhydrite 2520.10.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. gypsum production decreased by 5% compared with that of 2018. Apparent

consumption decreased slightly compared with that of 2018. U.S. gypsum imports increased by 17% compared with

those of 2018. Exports, although very low compared with imports and often subject to wide fluctuations, increased by

6%.

Prepared by Robert D. Crangle, Jr. [(703) 648–6410, rcrangle@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

GYPSUM

Demand for gypsum depends principally on construction industry activity, particularly in the United States, where the

majority of gypsum consumed is used for building plasters, the manufacture of portland cement, and wallboard

products. The construction of wallboard manufacturing plants designed to use synthetic gypsum from coal flue gas

desulfurization (FGD) units as feedstock has resulted in less mining of natural gypsum. The availability of inexpensive

natural gas, however, has limited the additional construction of FGD units and, therefore, the use of synthetic gypsum

in wallboard.

The United States, the world’s leading crude gypsum producer, produced an estimated 20 million tons. China and

Iran were the second-leading producers each producing an estimated 16 million tons. Increased use of wallboard in

Asia, coupled with new gypsum product plants, spurred increased production in that region. As wallboard becomes

more widely used in other regions, worldwide production of gypsum is expected to increase.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for India, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, and Thailand were revised based

on Government and other public data.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 21,100 20,000 700,000

Algeria 2,500 2,500 NA

Brazil 3,200 3,200 340,000

Canada 3,000 3,000 450,000

China 15,500 16,000 NA

France 3,000 3,000 NA

Germany 3,200 3,200 NA

India 2,700 2,700 37,000

Iran 16,000 16,000 NA

Japan 4,700 4,700 NA

Mexico 5,400 5,400 NA

Oman 7,000 7,000 NA

Pakistan 2,200 2,200 4,900

Russia 3,800 3,800 NA

Saudi Arabia 3,310 3,300 NA

Spain 7,000 7,000 NA

Thailand 9,300 9,300 1,700

Turkey 10,000 10,000 200,000

Other countries 20,000 21,000 NA

World total (rounded) 143,000 140,000 Large

World Resources: Reserves are large in major producing countries, but data for most are not available. Domestic

gypsum resources are adequate but unevenly distributed. Large imports from Canada augment domestic supplies for

wallboard manufacturing in the United States, particularly in the eastern and southern coastal regions. Imports from

Mexico supplement domestic supplies for wallboard manufacturing along portions of the U.S. western seaboard.

Large gypsum deposits occur in the Great Lakes region, the midcontinent region, and several Western States.

Foreign resources are large and widely distributed; 80 countries were thought to produce gypsum in 2019.

Substitutes: In such applications as stucco and plaster, cement and lime may be substituted for gypsum; brick,

glass, metallic or plastic panels, and wood may be substituted for wallboard. Gypsum has no practical substitute in

the manufacturing of portland cement. Synthetic gypsum generated by various industrial processes, including FGD of

smokestack emissions, is very important as a substitute for mined gypsum in wallboard manufacturing, cement

production, and agricultural applications (in descending order by tonnage). In 2019, synthetic gypsum was estimated

to account for about 45% of the total domestic gypsum supply.

Estimated. NA Not available.

The standard unit used in the U.S. wallboard industry is square feet; multiply square feet by 9.29 x 10

-2

to convert to square meters. Source: The

Gypsum Association.

Synthetic gypsum used; the majority of these data were obtained from the American Coal Ash Association.

From domestic crude and synthetic gypsum.

Defined as domestic crude production + synthetic used + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

HELIUM

(Data in million cubic meters of contained helium gas

unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: The estimated value of Grade-A helium (99.997% or greater) extracted during 2019

by private industry was about $717 million. Fourteen plants (one in Arizona, two in Colorado, five in Kansas, one in

Oklahoma, four in Texas, and one in Utah) extracted helium from natural gas and produced crude helium that ranged

from 50% to 99% helium. One plant in Colorado and another in Wyoming extracted helium from natural gas and

produced Grade-A helium. Three plants in Kansas and one in Oklahoma accepted crude helium from other producers

and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) pipeline and purified it to Grade-A helium. In 2019, estimated domestic

consumption of Grade-A helium was 40 million cubic meters (1.4 billion cubic feet), and it was used for magnetic

resonance imaging, 30%; lifting gas, 17%; analytical and laboratory applications, 14%; welding, 9%; engineering and

scientific applications, 6%; leak detection and semiconductor manufacturing, 5% each; and various other minor

applications, 14%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018

2019

Helium extracted from natural gas

71 66 63 64 68

Withdrawn from storage

20 23 28 26 21

Grade-A helium sales 91 89 91 90 89

Imports for consumption 16 23 19 8 7

Exports 64 62 74 84 83

Consumption, apparent

43 50 36 40 40

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption E E E E E

In fiscal year (FY) 2019, the price for crude helium to Government users was $3.10 per cubic meter ($86.00 per

thousand cubic feet) and to nongovernment users was $4.29 per cubic meter ($119.00 per thousand cubic feet). The

price for the Government-owned helium is mandated by the Helium Stewardship Act of 2013 (Public Law 113–40)

and determined through public auctions and industry surveys. The last year helium prices were posted by the Federal

Government was in 2018. The estimated price for private industry’s Grade-A helium was about $7.57 per cubic meter

($210 per thousand cubic feet), with some producers posting surcharges to this price.

Recycling: In the United States, helium used in large-volume applications is seldom recycled. Some low-volume or

liquid boil-off recovery systems are used. In the rest of the world, helium recycling is practiced more often.

Import Sources (2015–18): Qatar, 79%; Canada, 8%; Algeria, 5%; Portugal, 4%; and other, 4%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Helium 2804.29.0010 3.7% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: Allowances are applicable to natural gas from which helium is extracted, but no allowance is

granted directly to helium.

Government Stockpile: Under the Helium Stewardship Act of 2013, the BLM manages the Federal Helium Program,

which includes all operations of the Cliffside Field helium storage reservoir, in Potter County, TX, and the

Government’s crude helium pipeline system. Private firms that sell Grade-A helium to Federal agencies are required

to purchase a like amount of (in-kind) crude helium from the BLM. The law mandates that the BLM sell at auction

Federal Conservation helium stored in Bush Dome at the Cliffside Field. The last auction was completed in the

summer of 2018. Because the remaining conservation helium is less than 83.2 million cubic meters (3 billion cubic

feet), the law requires that the BLM begin disposal of all helium assets including all operations of the Cliffside Field

helium storage reservoir and pipeline system and complete the sale by yearend 2021. In the meantime, the BLM will

continue to make in-kind helium available to Federal customers. In FY 2019, privately owned companies purchased

about 4.8 million cubic meters (176 million cubic feet) of in-kind crude helium. During FY 2019, the BLM’s Amarillo

Field Office, Helium Operations, accepted about 3.0 million cubic meters (107 million cubic feet) of private helium for

storage and redelivered nearly 24.2 million cubic meters (0.875 billion cubic feet). As of September 30, 2019, about

67.4 million cubic meters (2.43 billion cubic feet) of privately owned helium remained in storage at Cliffside Field.

Stockpile Status—9–30–19

Authorized Disposal plan Disposals

Material Inventory for disposal FY 2019 FY 2019

Helium 68.0 51.4 4.8 4.8

Prepared by Joseph B. Peterson

[(806) 356–1030, jbp[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

HELIUM

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, the BLM continued implementation of the Helium Stewardship Act of 2013 by

supplying helium to Federal agencies through the in-kind helium program from Federal helium storage at the Cliffside

Field near Amarillo. The Bush Dome at the Cliffside Field is the only geologic structure in the United States that is

used to store of helium. The Federal Government has stored helium in the Bush Dome since 1962. By about 2025,

international helium extraction facilities are likely to become the main sources of supply for world helium users.

World Production and Reserves:

Production Reserves

2018 2019

United States (extracted from natural gas) 64 68 3,900

United States (from Cliffside Field) 26 21 (

)

Algeria 14 14 1,800

Australia 4 4 NA

Canada <1 <1 NA

China NA NA NA

Poland 2 2 25

Qatar 45 51 NA

Russia 3 2 1,700

World total (rounded) 158 160 NA

World Resources: Section 16 of Public Law 113-40 requires the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to complete a

national helium gas assessment. The USGS and the BLM coordinated efforts to complete this assessment. The

USGS expects results to be published in 2020. The BLM plans to publish an update to its report of the Helium

Resources of the United States by midyear 2020. Until then, the following estimates are still the best available.

As of December 31, 2006, the total helium reserves and resources of the United States were estimated to be 20.6

billion cubic meters (744 billion cubic feet). This includes 4.25 billion cubic meters (153 billion cubic feet) of measured

reserves, 5.33 billion cubic meters (192 billion cubic feet) of probable resources, 5.93 billion cubic meters (214 billion

cubic feet) of possible resources, and 5.11 billion cubic meters (184 billion cubic feet) of speculative resources.

Included in the measured reserves are 670 million cubic meters (24.2 billion cubic feet) of helium stored in the

Cliffside Field Government Reserve, and 65 million cubic meters (2.3 billion cubic feet) of helium contained in Cliffside

Field native gas. The Hugoton (Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas), Panhandle West, Panoma, Riley Ridge in Wyoming,

and Cliffside Fields are the depleting fields from which most U.S.-produced helium is extracted. These fields

contained an estimated 3.9 billion cubic meters (140 billion cubic feet) of helium.

Helium resources of the world, exclusive of the United States, were estimated to be about 31.3 billion cubic meters

(1.13 trillion cubic feet). The locations and volumes of the major deposits, in billion cubic meters, are Qatar, 10.1;

Algeria, 8.2; Russia, 6.8; Canada, 2.0; and China, 1.1. As of December 31, 2018, the BLM had analyzed about

22,300 gas samples from 26 countries and the United States, in a program to identify world helium resources.

Substitutes: There is no substitute for helium in cryogenic applications if temperatures below –429 °F are required.

Argon can be substituted for helium in welding, and hydrogen can be substituted for helium in some lighter-than-air

applications in which the flammable nature of hydrogen is not objectionable. Hydrogen is also being investigated as a

substitute for helium in deep-sea diving applications below 1,000 feet.

Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available.

Measured at 101.325 kilopascals absolute (14.696 psia) and 15 °C; 27.737 cubic meters of helium = 1,000 cubic feet of helium at 70 °F and

14.7 psia.

Both Grade-A and crude helium.

Extracted from natural gas in prior years.

Grade-A helium. Defined as Grade-A helium sales + imports – exports. However, substantial increases in exports reported in 2018 and 2019

suggest that domestic consumption declined, although no significant decline in U.S. helium consumption is thought to have taken place. For that

reason, apparent consumption for 2018 and 2019 was estimated to have remained at about 40 million cubic meters.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix B for definitions.

Supervisory General Engineer, Helium Resources Division, Bureau of Land Management, Amarillo Field Office, Helium Operations, Amarillo, TX.

Production and reserves outside of the United States are estimated.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Included in United States (extracted from natural gas) reserves.

INDIUM

(Data in metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Indium was not recovered from ores in the United States in 2019. Several

companies produced indium products—including alloys, compounds, high-purity metal, and solders—from imported

indium metal. Production of indium tin oxide (ITO) continued to account for most of global indium consumption. ITO

thin-film coatings were primarily used for electrical conductive purposes in a variety of flat-panel displays—most

commonly liquid crystal displays (LCDs). Other indium end uses included alloys and solders, compounds, electrical

components and semiconductors, and research. Based on an average of recent annual import levels, estimated

domestic consumption of refined indium was 110 tons in 2019. The estimated value of refined indium consumed

domestically in 2019, based on the average New York dealer price, was about $43 million.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, refinery — — — — —

Imports for consumption 140 160 127 125 110

Exports NA NA NA NA NA

Consumption, estimated

140 160 127 125 110

Price, annual average, dollars per kilogram:

New York dealer

520 345 363 375 390

Duties unpaid in warehouse, Rotterdam

410 240 225 291 210

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

estimated consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Indium is most commonly recovered from ITO scrap in Japan and the Republic of Korea. A significant

quantity of scrap was recycled domestically; however, data on the quantity of secondary indium recovered from scrap

were not available.

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 36%; Canada, 22%; Republic of Korea, 11%; Taiwan, 7%; and other, 24%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Unwrought indium, including powders, waste, and scrap 8112.92.3000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The 2019 estimated average New York dealer price of indium was $390 per kilogram,

4% more than that of 2018. The average monthly price in January was $390 per kilogram where it remained through

September. The 2019 estimated average free market price of indium was $210 per kilogram, 28% less than in 2018.

The average monthly free market price began the year at $232 per kilogram and decreased throughout the year to an

average of $160 per kilogram in September.

Prepared by C. Schuyler Anderson [(703) 648–4985, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

INDIUM

In January, the Fanya Metal Exchange attempted to auction two lots of indium, totaling 37.41 tons, with a starting

price of $170 per kilogram, but no bids were received. A second auction for 34.64 tons of indium was held in April,

and the total lot sold for about $5.5 million ($161 per kilogram) to the State-owned China National Corporation for

Overseas Economic Cooperation (CCOEC). The Fanya Metal Exchange reportedly held 3,600 tons of indium, which

is equivalent to 4 years of global primary indium production, before it closed in 2015.

New telecommunication networks have created a new demand for indium, which is used for indium phosphide (InP)

lasers and receivers. InP lasers are used in telecommunications for fiber-optic networks that have connections

between third-, fourth-, and fifth-generation (3G, 4G, and 5G) wireless antennas; have data transmission speeds of

greater than 10 terabits per second; and have total transmission distances of more than 5,000 kilometers.

World Refinery Production and Reserves:

Refinery production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — — Quantitative estimates of reserves are not

Belgium 22 20 available.

Canada 58 60

China 300 300

France 40 50

Japan 70 75

Korea, Republic of 235 240

Peru 11 10

Russia 5 5

World total (rounded) 741 760

World Resources: Indium is most commonly recovered from the zinc-sulfide ore mineral sphalerite. The indium

content of zinc deposits from which it is recovered ranges from less than 1 part per million to 100 parts per million.

Although the geochemical properties of indium are such that it occurs in trace amounts in other base-metal sulfides—

particularly chalcopyrite and stannite—most deposits of these minerals are subeconomic for indium.

Substitutes: Antimony tin oxide coatings have been developed as an alternative to ITO coatings in LCDs and have

been successfully annealed to LCD glass; carbon nanotube coatings have been developed as an alternative to ITO

coatings in flexible displays, solar cells, and touch screens; PEDOT [poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene)] has also

been developed as a substitute for ITO in flexible displays and organic light-emitting diodes; and copper or silver

nanowires have been explored as a substitute for ITO in touch screens. Graphene has been developed to replace

ITO electrodes in solar cells and also has been explored as a replacement for ITO in flexible touch screens.

Researchers have developed a more adhesive zinc oxide nanopowder to replace ITO in LCDs. Hafnium can replace

indium in nuclear reactor control rod alloys.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Estimated to equal imports.

Price is based on 99.99%-minimum-purity indium; delivered duty paid U.S. buyers; in minimum lots of 50 kilograms. Source: Platts Metals Week.

Price is based on 99.99%-minimum-purity indium, duties unpaid in warehouse (Rotterdam). Sources: Metal Bulletin (2015–2017) and Argus Media

group–Argus Metals International (2018–2019).

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

IODINE

(Data in metric tons of elemental iodine unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Iodine was produced from brines in 2019 by three companies operating in

Oklahoma. U.S. iodine production in 2019 was withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. The average

annual cost, insurance, and freight value of iodine imports in 2019 was estimated to be $26 per kilogram, a 16%

increase from that of 2018.

Because domestic and imported iodine was used by downstream manufacturers to produce many intermediate iodine

compounds, it was difficult to establish an accurate end-use pattern. Crude iodine and inorganic iodine compounds

were thought to account for more than 50% of domestic iodine consumption in 2019. Worldwide, the leading uses of

iodine and its compounds were x-ray contrast media, pharmaceuticals, liquid-crystal-displays (LCDs), and iodophors,

in descending order of quantity consumed.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017

2018 2019

Production W W W W W

Imports for consumption 5,630 4,320 4,170 4,930 4,600

Exports 1,210 1,050 1,230 1,190 1,200

Consumption:

Apparent

W W W W W

Reported 3,800 4,610 4,500 4,620 4,800

Price, crude, average value of imports,

cost, insurance, and freight, dollars per kilogram 27.74 22.71 19.55 22.46 26

Employment, number

60 60 60 60 60

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of reported consumption >50 >50 >50 >50 >50

Recycling: Small amounts of iodine were recycled.

Import Sources (2015–18): Chile, 88%; Japan, 11%; and other, 1%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Iodine, crude 2801.20.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Emily K. Schnebele [(703) 648–4945, eschnebel[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

IODINE

Events, Trends, and Issues: According to trade publications, spot prices for iodine crystal averaged about $28 per

kilogram during the first half of 2019. Although this was an increase from the 2018 annual average of about $25 per

kilogram, prices were still considerably less than the historically high levels of $65 to $85 per kilogram in late 2012

and early 2013. The increase in the average spot price was attributed to an undersupply in the market. The estimated

average annual value of crude iodine imported in the United States increased by about 16% in 2019 compared with

that in 2018.

As in recent years, Chile was the world’s leading producer of iodine, followed by Japan and the United States.

Excluding production in the United States, Chile accounted for about 65% of world production in 2019. In

Turkmenistan, a new iodine producer started operations and was thought to have contributed to an increase in the

country’s total iodine production in 2019. Most of the world’s iodine supply comes from three areas: the Chilean

desert nitrate mines, the oilfields and gasfields in Japan, and the iodine-rich brine wells in northwestern Oklahoma.

World Mine Production and Reserves: China and Iran also produce crude iodine, but output is not officially

reported.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States W W 250,000

Azerbaijan 200 200 170,000

Chile 18,000 18,000 610,000

Indonesia 38 40 100,000

Japan 8,800 9,000 5,000,000

Russia 8 10 120,000

Turkmenistan 540 600 70,000

World total (rounded)

27,600

28,000 6,300,000

World Resources: Seawater contains 0.06 part per million iodine, and the oceans are estimated to contain

approximately 90 billion tons of iodine. Seaweeds of the Laminaria family are able to extract and accumulate up to

0.45% iodine on a dry basis. Although not as economical as the production of iodine as a byproduct of gas, nitrates,

and oil, the seaweed industry represented a major source of iodine prior to 1959 and remains a large resource.

Substitutes: No comparable substitutes exist for iodine in many of its principal applications, such as in animal feed,

catalytic, nutritional, pharmaceutical, and photographic uses. Bromine and chlorine could be substituted for iodine in

biocide, colorant, and ink, although they are usually considered less desirable than iodine. Antibiotics can be used as

a substitute for iodine biocides.

Estimated. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Excludes U.S. production.

IRON AND STEEL

(Data in million metric tons of metal unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: The U.S. iron and steel industry produced raw steel in 2019 with an estimated value

of about $92 billion, an 11% decrease from $103 billion in 2018 and a 9% increase from $84 billion in 2017. Pig iron

and raw steel was produced by three companies operating integrated steel mills in nine locations. Fifty companies

produced raw steel at 98 minimills. Combined production capacity was about 111 million tons. Indiana accounted for

an estimated 26% of total raw steel production, followed by Ohio, 12%; Michigan, 5%; and Pennsylvania, 5%, with no

other State having more than 5% of total domestic raw steel production. Construction accounted for an estimated

44% of total domestic shipments by market classification, followed by transportation (predominantly automotive),

28%; machinery and equipment, 9%; energy, 6%; appliances, 5%; and other applications, 8%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Pig iron production

25.4 22.3 22.4 24.1 23

Raw steel production 78.8 78.5 81.6 86.6 87

Basic oxygen furnaces, percent 37.3 33.0 31.6 32.0 30

Electric arc furnaces, percent 62.7 67.0 68.4 68.0 70

Continuously cast steel, percent 99.0 99.4 99.6 98.2 99

Shipments, steel mill products 78.5 78.5 82.5 86.4 87

Imports:

Finished steel mill products 28.6 23.9 26.8 23.3 20

Semifinished steel mill products 6.6 6.1 7.8 7.3 7.0

Total steel mill products 35.2 30.0 34.6 30.6 27.0

Exports:

Finished steel mill products 8.9 8.3 9.5 7.9 6.7

Semifinished products (

) (

)

Total steel mill products 9.0 8.4 9.6 8.0 6.7

Stocks, service centers, yearend

7.5 6.6 7.0 7.3 6.0

Consumption, apparent (steel)

110 105 111 101 100

Producer price index for steel mill products

(1982=100)

177.1 167.8 187.4 211.1 207

Total employment, average, number

Blast furnaces and steel mills 87,000 83,900 80,600 82,100 83,000

Iron and steel foundries 64,900 65,000 65,000 65,200 63,000

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 29 25 26 22 21

Recycling: See Iron and Steel Scrap and Iron and Steel Slag.

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 17%; Brazil, 13%; Republic of Korea, 11%; and other, 59%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Carbon steel:

Semifinished 7207.00.0000 Free.

Flat, hot-rolled 7208.00.0000 Free.

Flat, cold-rolled 7209.00.0000 Free.

Galvanized 7210.00.0000 Free.

Bars and rods, hot-rolled 7213.00.0000 Free.

Structural shapes 7216.00.0000 Free.

Stainless steel:

Semifinished 7218.00.0000 Free.

Flat-rolled sheets 7219.00.0000 Free.

Bars and rods 7222.00.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Not applicable.

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Candice C. Tuck [(703) 648–4912, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

IRON AND STEEL

Events, Trends, and Issues: After several Presidential proclamations were issued in 2018 imposing 25% ad valorem

tariffs on steel imports from most countries of origin under the authority of Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of

1962 (83 FR 11625), the President of the United States modified proclamation 9705 and issued two additional

proclamations in 2019. Presidential Proclamation 9886, issued in May 2019, reduced the ad valorem tariff on steel

imports from Turkey to 25% from 50%. Also, in May 2019, Proclamation 9894 removed the Section 232 tariffs for

steel imports from Canada and Mexico. Steel imports from all countries except Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada,

Mexico, and the Republic of Korea still required a 25% ad valorem tariff. In September 2018, March 2019, and June

2019, the U.S. Department of Commerce issued additional guidance in the Federal Register for companies to request

product exemptions from the Section 232 tariffs.

The World Steel Association

forecast global finished steel demand to increase by 3.9% in 2019 and 1.7% in 2020, as

a result of real estate investment in China and 4.1% growth in emerging and developing economies in 2020. Steel

consumption in developed economies, except for China, was expected to remain the same or decrease slightly in

2019 despite growth in consumer and construction applications as potential and enacted trade policies affected

investments and exports among the manufacturing sector. Growth of the construction sectors in 2019 and 2020 was

expected to decrease slightly in the United States, as well as in the European Union, Latin America, Japan, and the

Republic of Korea. In other countries in Asia, including India, Government stimulus was expected to increase demand

in the construction sector. Automotive production rates were expected to decrease in 2019 in China, Germany, the

Republic of Korea, and Turkey.

World Production:

Pig iron Raw steel

2018 2019

United States 24 23 87 87

Brazil 29 26 35 32

China 771 820 928 1,000

Germany 27 26 42 41

India 71 75 106 110

Iran 2 3 25 27

Italy 5 5 25 24

Japan 77 75 104 100

Korea, Republic of 47 48 72 72

Mexico 4 4 20 19

Russia 52 50 72 71

Taiwan 15 16 23 23

Turkey 11 10 37 34

Ukraine 21 21 21 22

Vietnam 6 10 18 27

Other countries 94 96 198 194

World total (rounded) 1,250 1,300 1,810 1,900

World Resources: Not applicable. See Iron Ore and Iron and Steel Scrap for steelmaking raw-material resources.

Substitutes: Iron is the least expensive and most widely used metal. In most applications, iron and steel compete

either with less expensive nonmetallic materials or with more expensive materials that have a performance

advantage. Iron and steel compete with lighter materials, such as aluminum and plastics, in the motor vehicle

industry; aluminum, concrete, and wood in construction; and aluminum, glass, paper, and plastics in containers.

Estimated.

Production and shipments data source is the American Iron and Steel Institute; see also Iron and Steel Scrap and Iron Ore.

More than 95% of iron made is transported in molten form to steelmaking furnaces located at the same site.

Less than ½ unit.

Steel mill products. Source: Metals Service Center Institute.

Defined as steel shipments + imports of finished steel mill products – total exports of steel mill products + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, North American Industry Classification System Code 331100.

Defined as total imports – total exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

World Steel Association, 2019, Short range outlook October 2019: Brussels, Belgium, World Steel Association press release, October 14, 6 p.

IRON AND STEEL SCRAP

(Data in million metric tons of metal unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, the total value of domestic purchases of iron and steel scrap (receipts of

ferrous scrap by all domestic consumers from brokers, dealers, and other outside sources) and exports was

estimated to be $17.6 billion, approximately 17% less than the $21.1 billion in 2018 and 4% more than the $16.8

billion in 2017. U.S. apparent steel consumption, an indicator of economic growth, was estimated to have decreased

slightly to 100 million tons in 2019 from 101 million tons in 2018. Manufacturers of pig iron, raw steel, and steel

castings accounted for about 92% of scrap consumption by the domestic steel industry, using scrap together with pig

iron and direct-reduced iron to produce steel products for the appliance, construction, container, machinery, oil and

gas, transportation, and various other consumer industries. The ferrous castings industry consumed most of the

remaining scrap to produce cast iron and steel products. Relatively small quantities of steel scrap were used for

producing ferroalloys, for the precipitation of copper, and by the chemical industry; these uses collectively totaled less

than 1 million tons.

During 2019, raw steel production was an estimated 87 million tons, up slightly from 86.6 million tons in 2018. Net

shipments of steel mill products were an estimated 87 million tons, up slightly from 86.4 million tons in 2018.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Home scrap 6.3 5.9 5.6 5.8 5.8

Purchased scrap

54 53 55 59 59

Imports for consumption

3.5 3.9 4.6 5.0 4.5

Exports

13 13 15 17 18

Consumption, reported 51 50 50 52 53

Consumption, apparent

51 50 51 52 52

Price, average, dollars per metric ton delivered,

No. 1 Heavy Melting composite price 213 196 266 323 266

Stocks, consumer, yearend 4.2 4.3 4.5 5.1 5.2

Employment, dealers, brokers, processors, number

30,000 27,000 27,000 27,000 28,000

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

reported consumption E E E E E

Recycling: Recycled iron and steel scrap is a vital raw material for the production of new steel and cast iron

products. The steel and foundry industries in the United States have been structured to recycle scrap, and, as a

result, are highly dependent upon scrap. One ton of steel that is recycled conserves 1.1 tons of iron ore, 0.6 ton of

coking coal, and 0.05 ton of limestone.

Overall, the scrap recycling rate in the United States has averaged between 80% and 90% during the past decade,

with automobiles making up the primary source of old steel scrap. Recycling of automobiles is nearly 100% each

year, with rates fluctuating slightly owing to the rate of new vehicle production and general economic trends. More

than 15 million tons of steel is recycled from automobiles annually, the equivalent of approximately 12 million cars,

from more than 7,000 vehicle dismantlers and 350 car shredders in North America. The recycling of steel from

automobiles is estimated to save the equivalent energy necessary to power 18 million homes every year.

Recycling rates, which fluctuate annually, were estimated to be 98% for structural steel from construction, 88% for

appliances, 71% for rebar and reinforcement steel, and 70% for steel packaging. The recycling rates for appliance,

can, and construction steel are expected to increase in the United States and in emerging industrial countries at an

even greater rate. Public interest in recycling continues, and recycling is becoming more profitable and convenient as

environmental regulations for primary production increase.

Recycling of scrap plays an important role in the conservation of energy because the remelting of scrap requires

much less energy than the production of iron or steel products from iron ore. Also, consumption of iron and steel

scrap by remelting reduces the burden on landfill disposal facilities and prevents the accumulation of abandoned steel

products in the environment. Recycled scrap consists of approximately 58% post-consumer (old, obsolete) scrap,

24% prompt scrap (produced in steel-product manufacturing plants), and 18% home scrap (recirculating scrap from

current operations).

Prepared by Candice C. Tuck [(703) 648–4912, [email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

IRON AND STEEL SCRAP

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 72%; Mexico, 9%; United Kingdom, 8%; Sweden, 5%; and other, 6%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Ferrous waste and scrap:

Stainless steel 7204.21.0000 Free.

Turnings, shavings, chips, milling waste, sawdust,

filings, trimmings, and stampings:

No. 1 bundles 7204.41.0020 Free.

No. 2 bundles 7204.41.0040 Free.

Borings, shovelings, and turnings 7204.41.0060 Free.

Other 7204.41.0080 Free.

Other:

No. 1 heavy melting 7204.49.0020 Free.

No. 2 heavy melting 7204.49.0040 Free.

Cut plate and structural 7204.49.0060 Free.

Shredded 7204.49.0070 Free.

Remelting scrap ingots 7204.50.0000 Free.

Powders, of pig iron, spielgeleisen, iron, or steel:

Alloy steel 7205.21.0000 Free.

Other 7205.29.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Not applicable.

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, steel mill production capacity utilization peaked to the highest rates since April

2012, reaching 82.4% in February 2019, with rates remaining over 80% between January and June. Composite

prices published for No. 1 Heavy Melting steel scrap delivered averaged about $271 per ton during the first 8 months

of 2019, a decrease from $323 per ton in 2018. The average monthly prices during this time fluctuated between a

high of $309.87 per ton in March and a low of $225.91 per ton in July. In the first 8 months of 2019, Turkey was the

primary destination for exports of ferrous scrap, by tonnage, accounting for 20% of total exports, followed by Canada

(11%), Taiwan (10%), Vietnam (9%), and Mexico (7%). The value of exported scrap decreased to an estimated $5.3

billion in 2019 from $5.9 billion in 2018.

The World Steel Association

forecast global finished steel demand to increase by 3.9% in 2019 and 1.7% in 2020, as

a result of real estate investment in China and 4.1% growth in emerging and developing economies in 2020. Steel

demand among developed economies, except for China, was expected to remain the same or decrease slightly in

2019 despite growth in consumer and construction applications as potential and enacted trade policies affected

investments and exports within the manufacturing sector. Growth of the construction sectors in 2019 and 2020 was

expected to decrease slightly in the United States, as well as the European Union, Japan, Latin America, and the

Republic of Korea. In other countries in Asia, including India, Government stimulus was expected to increase demand

in the construction sector. Automotive production growth was also expected to decrease in 2019 in China, Germany,

the Republic of Korea, and Turkey.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Not applicable.

World Resources: Not applicable.

Substitutes: An estimated 2.8 million tons of direct-reduced iron was used in the United States in 2019 as a

substitute for iron and steel scrap, up from 2.4 million tons in 2018.

Estimated. E Net exporter.

See also Magnesium Compounds.

Defined as primary production + secondary production from old scrap + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Source: Platts Metals Week.

Discontinued.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Less than ½ unit.

Excludes U.S. production.

103

MANGANESE

(Data in thousand metric tons gross weight unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Manganese ore containing 20% or more manganese has not been produced

domestically since 1970. Manganese ore was consumed mainly by eight firms with plants principally in the East and

Midwest. Most ore consumption was related to steel production, either directly in pig iron manufacture or indirectly

through upgrading the ore to ferroalloys. Additional quantities of ore were used for such nonmetallurgical purposes as

production of dry cell batteries, in fertilizers and animal feed, and as a brick colorant. Manganese ferroalloys were

produced at two plants. Construction, transportation, and machinery end uses accounted for about 43%, 13%, and

11%, respectively, of manganese consumption on a manganese-content basis. Most of the rest went to a variety of

other iron and steel applications. In 2019, the value of domestic consumption, estimated from foreign trade data on a

manganese-content basis, was about $1.2 billion.

Salient Statistics—United States:

2015 2016

2017 2018

2019

Production, mine — — — — —

Imports for consumption:

Manganese ore 441 282 297 440 340

Ferromanganese 292 229 331 427 370

Silicomanganese

301 264 351 412 370

Exports:

Manganese ore 1 1 1 3 1

Ferromanganese 5 7 9 10 7

Silicomanganese 1 2 8 4 1

Shipments from Government stockpile:

Manganese ore — — — — —

Ferromanganese 32 42 9 10 5

Consumption, reported:

Manganese ore

451 410 378 370 380

Ferromanganese 344 342 345 348 360

Silicomanganese 138 139 141 139 140

Consumption, apparent, manganese

693 545 714 793 740

Price, average, 46% to 48% Mn metallurgical ore,

dollars per metric ton unit, contained Mn:

Cost, insurance, and freight (c.i.f.), U.S. ports

3.53 3.41 6.43 7.17 6.60

China spot market (c.i.f.) 3.22 4.48

5.62

6.91

6.16

Stocks, producer and consumer, yearend:

Manganese ore 187 207 148 185 150

Ferromanganese 21 21 17 27 28

Silicomanganese 21 10 11 21 22

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Manganese was recycled incidentally as a constituent of ferrous and nonferrous scrap; however, scrap

recovery specifically for manganese was negligible. Manganese is recovered along with iron from steel slag.

Import Sources (2015–18): Manganese ore: Gabon, 70%; South Africa, 17%; Australia, 6%; Mexico, 5%; and other,

2%. Ferromanganese: South Africa, 27%; Australia, 19%; Norway, 16%; Republic of Korea, 13%; and other, 25%.

Silicomanganese: Georgia, 27%; South Africa, 24%; Australia, 20%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 21%. Manganese

contained in principal manganese imports:

South Africa, 22%; Gabon, 21%; Australia, 15%; Georgia, 10%; and

other, 32%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Ores and concentrates 2602.00.0040/60 Free.

Manganese dioxide 2820.10.0000 4.7% ad val.

High-carbon ferromanganese 7202.11.5000 1.5% ad val.

Ferrosilicon manganese (silicomanganese) 7202.30.0000 3.9% ad val.

Metal, unwrought 8111.00.4700/4900 14% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

104

Prepared by Lisa A. Corathers [(703) 648–4973, lcorath[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

MANGANESE

Government Stockpile:

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Manganese ore, metallurgical grade 292 — 292 — 292

Ferromanganese, high-carbon 193 — 45 — 45

Manganese metal, electrolytic 0.432 3 — 5 —

Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. manganese apparent consumption was estimated to have decreased by 7% to

740,000 tons in 2019 compared with that in 2018 as a result of decreases in U.S. ferromanganese and

silicomanganese imports. Electrolytic manganese metal was newly added to the National Defense Stockpile in 2019

as a critical material for defense purposes; the last time electrolytic manganese metal was held in the Government

stockpile was in 2004.

World Mine Production and Reserves (manganese content): Reserves for Australia, Brazil, Gabon, India, and

South Africa were revised based on Government and industry sources.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — — —

Australia 3,480 3,200

100,000

Brazil 1,310 1,200 140,000

Burma 207 210 NA

China 1,200 1,300 54,000

Cote d'Ivoire 395 400 NA

Gabon 2,330 2,400 61,000

Georgia 200 200 NA

Ghana 1,360 1,400 13,000

India 961 1,000 34,000

Kazakhstan, concentrate 140 130 5,000

Malaysia 390 420 NA

Mexico 210 190 5,000

South Africa 5,800 5,500 260,000

Ukraine, concentrate 517 540 140,000

Other countries 397 910 Small

World total (rounded) 18,900 19,000 810,000

World Resources: Land-based manganese resources are large but irregularly distributed; those in the United States

are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs. South Africa accounts for about 74% of the world’s

identified manganese resources, and Ukraine accounts for about 10%.

Substitutes: Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Manganese content typically ranges from 35% to 54% for manganese ore and from 74% to 95% for ferromanganese.

Imports more nearly represent amount consumed than does reported consumption.

Defined as stockpile shipments – receipts, thousand tons, manganese content. If receipts, a negative quantity is shown.

Exclusive of ore consumed directly at iron and steel plants and associated yearend stocks.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes, thousand tons, manganese content. Based on estimates

of average content for all significant components—including ore, manganese dioxide, ferromanganese, silicomanganese, and manganese metal—

except imports, for which content is reported.

For average metallurgical-grade ore containing 44% manganese, as reported by CRU Group.

Average weekly price through September 2019 for average metallurgical-grade ore containing 44% manganese, as reported by CRU Group.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes, thousand tons, manganese content.

Includes imports of ferromanganese, manganese ore, silicomanganese, synthetic manganese dioxide, and unwrought manganese metal.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 45 million tons of manganese content.

105

MERCURY

(Data in metric tons of mercury content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Mercury has not been produced as a principal mineral commodity in the United

States since 1992. In 2019, mercury was recovered as a byproduct from processing gold-silver ore at several mines

in Nevada; however, production data were not reported. Secondary, or recycled, mercury was recovered from

batteries, compact and traditional fluorescent lamps, dental amalgam, medical devices, and thermostats, as well as

mercury-contaminated soils. It was estimated that less than 40 tons per year of mercury was consumed domestically.

The leading domestic end users of mercury were the chlorine-caustic soda (chloralkali), dental, electronics, and

fluorescent-lighting manufacturing industries. Only two mercury cell chloralkali plants operated in the United States in

2019. Until December 31, 2012, domestic- and foreign-sourced mercury was refined and then exported for global use,

primarily for small-scale gold mining in many parts of the world. Beginning January 1, 2013, export of elemental

mercury from the United States was banned, with some exceptions, under the Mercury Export Ban Act of 2008.

Effective January 1, 2020, exports of five additional mercury compounds will be banned. The U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency issued the final rule for mercury reporting requirements for the Toxic Substances Control Act. The

requirements applied to anyone who manufactured (including imports) mercury or mercury-added products, or

otherwise intentionally used mercury in a manufacturing process.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Mine (byproduct) NA NA NA NA NA

Secondary NA NA NA NA NA

Imports for consumption (gross weight), metal 26 24 20 6 10

Exports (gross weight), metal (

) — — — —

Price, average value, dollars per flask 99.99%:

European Union

2, 3

1,954 1,402 1,041 1,100 NA

Global locations

2, 4

2,465 1,275 1,273 2,709 2,550

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption NA NA NA NA NA

Recycling: In 2019, eight facilities operated by six companies in the United States accounted for the majority of

secondary mercury produced and were authorized by the U.S. Department of Energy to temporarily store mercury.

Mercury-containing automobile convenience switches, barometers, compact and traditional fluorescent bulbs,

computers, dental amalgam, medical devices, and thermostats were collected by smaller companies and shipped to

the refining companies for retorting to reclaim the mercury. In addition, many collection companies recovered mercury

when retorting was not required. With the rapid phasing out of compact and traditional fluorescent lighting for light-

emitting-diode (LED) lighting, there has been an increased amount of mercury being recycled.

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 39%; France, 32%; Switzerland, 13%; China, 8%; and other, 8%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Mercury 2805.40.0000 1.7% ad val.

Amalgams 2843.90.0000 3.7% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile:

An inventory of 4,437 tons of mercury was held in storage at the Hawthorne Army Depot in

Hawthorne, NV. The Mercury Export Ban Act of 2008 required the U.S. Department of Energy to establish long-term

management and storage capabilities for domestically produced elemental mercury. Sales of mercury from the

stockpiles remained suspended.

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Mercury 4,437 — — — —

Prepared by Micheal W. George [(703) 648–4962, mg[email protected]]

106

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

MERCURY

Events, Trends, and Issues: Owing to mercury toxicity and concerns for the environment and human health, overall

mercury use has declined in the United States. Mercury continues to be released to the environment from numerous

sources, including mercury-containing car switches when automobiles (those produced prior to 2003) are scrapped

without recovering them for recycling, coal-fired powerplant emissions, incineration of mercury-containing medical

devices, and from naturally occurring sources. Mercury is no longer used in most batteries and paints manufactured

in the United States. Some button-type batteries, cleansers, fireworks, folk medicines, grandfather clocks, pesticides,

and skin-lightening creams and soaps may still contain mercury. Mercury compounds were used as catalysts in the

coal-based manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer in China. In some parts of the world, mercury was used in the

recovery of gold in small-scale mining operations. Conversion to nonmercury technology for chloralkali production and

the ultimate closure of the world’s mercury-cell chloralkali plants may release a large quantity of mercury to the global

market for recycling, sale, or, owing to export bans in Europe and the United States, storage.

Byproduct mercury production is expected to continue from large-scale domestic and foreign gold-silver mining and

processing, as is secondary production of mercury from an ever-diminishing supply of mercury-containing products.

Domestic mercury consumption will continue to decline owing to increased use of LED lighting and consequent

reduced use of conventional fluorescent tubes and compact fluorescent bulbs, and continued substitution of

nonmercury-containing products in control, dental, and measuring applications.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production Reserves

2018

2019

United States NA NA Quantitative estimates

Argentina 25 30 of reserves are not available.

China 3,600 3,500 China, Kyrgyzstan, and Peru are

Kyrgyzstan 20 20 thought to have the largest

Mexico (net exports) 234 240 reserves.

Norway 20 20

Peru (exports) 40 40

Tajikistan 100 100

Other countries 20 20

World total (rounded) 4,060 4,000

World Resources: China, Kyrgyzstan, Mexico, Peru, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, and Ukraine have most of the world’s

estimated 600,000 tons of mercury resources. Mexico reclaims mercury from Spanish colonial silver-mining waste. In

Spain, once a leading producer of mercury, mining at its centuries-old Almaden Mine stopped in 2003. In the United

States, there are mercury occurrences in Alaska, Arkansas, California, Nevada, and Texas; however, mercury has

not been mined as a principal mineral commodity since 1992. The declining consumption of mercury, except for

small-scale gold mining, indicates that these resources are sufficient for centuries of use.

Substitutes: Ceramic composites substitute for the dark-gray mercury-containing dental amalgam. “Galistan,” an

alloy of gallium, indium, and tin, replaces the mercury used in traditional mercury thermometers, and digital

thermometers have replaced traditional thermometers. At chloralkali plants around the world, mercury-cell technology

is being replaced by newer diaphragm and membrane cell technology. LEDs that contain indium substitute for

mercury-containing fluorescent lamps. Lithium, nickel-cadmium, and zinc-air batteries replace mercury-zinc batteries

in the United States; indium compounds substitute for mercury in alkaline batteries; and organic compounds have

been substituted for mercury fungicides in latex paint.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Less than ½ unit.

Some international data and dealer prices are reported in flasks. One metric ton (1,000 kilograms) = 29.0082 flasks, and 1 flask = 76 pounds, or

34.47 kilograms, or 0.03447 ton.

Average annual price of minimum 99.99% mercury published by Argus Media group–Argus Metals International. Price discontinued on May 1,

2018.

Average midpoint of free market 99.99% mercury in warehouse, global locations, price published by Metal Bulletin.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government stock changes.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

107

MICA (NATURAL)

(Data in metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Scrap and flake mica production, excluding low-quality sericite, was estimated to be

38,000 tons valued at $4.6 million. Mica was mined in Georgia, North Carolina, and South Dakota. Scrap mica was

recovered principally from mica and sericite schist and as a byproduct from feldspar, industrial sand beneficiation, and

kaolin. Eight companies produced an estimated 63,000 tons of ground mica valued at about $22 million from

domestic and imported scrap and flake mica. The majority of domestic production was processed into small-particle-

size mica by either wet or dry grinding. Primary uses were joint compound, oil-well-drilling additives, paint, roofing,

and rubber products.

A minor amount of sheet mica was produced as incidental production from feldspar mining in North Carolina. Data

was withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. The domestic consuming industry was dependent on

imports to meet demand for sheet mica. Most sheet mica was fabricated into parts for electrical and electronic

equipment.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018

2019

Scrap and flake:

Production:

Sold and used 32,600 28,000 40,000 44,000 38,000

Ground 65,800 59,500 69,700 65,300 63,000

Imports

33,200 31,500 29,700 28,100 29,000

Exports

7,440 6,340 6,790 6,000 5,900

Consumption, apparent

58,400 53,200 62,900 66,100 61,000

Price, average, dollars per metric ton, reported:

Scrap and flake 142 152 165 122 120

Ground:

Dry 305 320 292 308 310

Wet 423 435 424 454 480

Employment, mine, number NA NA NA NA NA

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 44 47 36 33 37

Sheet:

Sold and used W W W W W

Imports

2,390 2,120 1,850 1,860 2,500

Exports

911 689 704 686 950

Consumption, apparent

1,480 1,430 1,150 1,170 1,600

Price, average value, dollars per kilogram,

muscovite and phlogopite mica, reported:

Block W W W W W

Splittings 1.61 1.61 1.66 1.65 1.65

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Scrap and flake: Canada, 45%; China, 31%; India, 10%; Finland, 4%; and other, 10%.

Sheet: China, 48%; Brazil, 22%; Belgium, 8%; Austria, 5%; and other, 17%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Split block mica 2525.10.0010 Free.

Mica splittings 2525.10.0020 Free.

Unworked, other 2525.10.0050 Free.

Mica powder 2525.20.0000 Free.

Mica waste 2525.30.0000 Free.

Plates, sheets, and strips of agglomerated or

reconstructed mica 6814.10.0000 2.7% ad val.

Worked mica and articles of mica, other 6814.90.0000 2.6% ad val.

Prepared by Stephen M. Jasinski [(703) 648–7711, sjasins[email protected]]

108

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

MICA (NATURAL)

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic production of scrap and flake mica was estimated to have decreased by 14%

in 2019. Apparent consumption of scrap and flake mica decreased by 8%. Apparent consumption of sheet mica was

estimated to have increased by 32% in 2019 as a result of increased imports of sheet mica from China. No

environmental concerns are associated with the manufacture and use of mica products. Future supplies of sheet mica

for United States consumption were expected to come increasingly from imports, primarily from Brazil, China, and

India.

World Mine Production and Reserves: World production of sheet mica is shown to have remained steady;

however, reliable production numbers for some countries that may influence that world total were unavailable.

Scrap and flake Sheet

Mine production Reserves

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 44,000 38,000 Large W W Very small

Canada 23,000 23,000 Large NA NA NA

China 100,000 100,000 Large NA NA NA

Finland 62,600 64,000 Large NA NA NA

France 20,000 22,000 Large NA NA NA

India 15,000 16,000 Large 1,000 1,000 110,000

Korea, Republic of 16,600 17,000 12,000,000 — — NA

Madagascar 35,000 36,000 Large — — NA

Turkey 6,500 7,000 620,000 — — NA

Other countries 52,800 53,000 Large 200 200 Moderate

World total (rounded) 375,000 380,000 Large NA NA Very large

World Resources: Resources of scrap and flake mica are available in clay deposits, granite, pegmatite, and schist,

and are considered more than adequate to meet anticipated world demand in the foreseeable future. World resources

of sheet mica have not been formally evaluated because of the sporadic occurrence of this material. Large deposits of

mica-bearing rock are known to exist in countries such as Brazil, India, and Madagascar. Limited resources of sheet

mica are available in the United States. Domestic resources are uneconomic because of the high cost of the hand

labor required to mine and process sheet mica from pegmatites.

Substitutes: Some lightweight aggregates, such as diatomite, perlite, and vermiculite, may be substituted for ground

mica when used as filler. Ground synthetic fluorophlogopite, a fluorine-rich mica, may replace natural ground mica for

uses that require thermal and electrical properties of mica. Many materials can be substituted for mica in numerous

electrical, electronic, and insulation uses. Substitutes include acrylic, cellulose acetate, fiberglass, fishpaper, nylatron,

nylon, phenolics, polycarbonate, polyester, styrene, polyvinyl chloride, and vulcanized fiber. Mica paper made from

scrap mica can be substituted for sheet mica in electrical and insulation applications.

Estimated. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.

Excludes low-quality sericite used primarily for brick manufacturing.

Includes Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 2525.10.0050, <$6.00/kg; 2525.20.0000; and 2525.30.0000.

Includes Schedule B numbers: 2525.10.0000, <$6.00/kg; 2525.20.0000; and 2525.30.0000.

Defined as sold or used by producing companies + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

Includes Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 2525.10.0010; 2525.10.0020; 2525.10.0050, >$6.00/kg; 6814.10.0000; and

6814.90.0000.

Includes Schedule B numbers: 2525.10.0000, >$6.00/kg; 6814.10.0000; and 6814.90.0000.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

109

MOLYBDENUM

(Data in metric tons of molybdenum content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: U.S. mine production of molybdenum in 2019 increased by 7% to 44,000 tons

compared with the previous year. Molybdenum ore was produced as a primary product at two mines—both in

Colorado—whereas seven copper mines (four in Arizona and one each in Montana, Nevada, and Utah) recovered

molybdenite concentrate as a byproduct. Three roasting plants converted molybdenite concentrate to molybdic oxide,

from which intermediate products, such as ferromolybdenum, metal powder, and various chemicals, were produced.

Metallurgical applications accounted for about 88% of the total molybdenum consumed.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, mine 47,400 36,200 40,700 41,400 44,000

Imports for consumption 17,500 22,800 36,000 37,600 37,000

Exports 41,500 31,200 43,200 48,400 57,000

Consumption:

Reported

17,600 15,800 17,200 16,900 17,000

Apparent

23,800 27,900 34,100 31,400 24,000

Price, average value, dollars per kilogram

15.10 14.40 18.06 27.04 26

Stocks, consumer materials 1,880 1,910 2,010 1,940 1,700

Employment, mine and plant, number 950 920 940 940 950

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption E E E E E

Recycling: Molybdenum is recycled as a component of catalysts, ferrous scrap, and superalloy scrap. Ferrous scrap

comprises revert scrap, and new and old scrap. Revert scrap refers to remnants manufactured in the steelmaking

process. New scrap is generated by steel mill customers and recycled by scrap collectors and processors. Old scrap

is largely molybdenum-bearing alloys recycled after serving their useful life. The amount of molybdenum recycled as

part of new and old steel and other scrap may be as much as 30% of the apparent supply of molybdenum. There are

no processes for the separate recovery and refining of secondary molybdenum from its alloys. Molybdenum is not

recovered separately from recycled steel and superalloys, but the molybdenum content of the recycled alloys is

significant, and the molybdenum content is reused. Recycling of molybdenum-bearing scrap will continue to be

dependent on the markets for the principal alloy metals in which molybdenum is contained, such as iron, nickel, and

chromium.

Import Sources (2015–18): Ferromolybdenum: Chile, 54%; Republic of Korea, 33%; Canada, 8%; and other, 5%.

Molybdenum ores and concentrates: Peru, 53%; Chile, 27%; Canada, 11%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 1%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Molybdenum ore and concentrates, roasted 2613.10.0000 12.8¢/kg + 1.8% ad val.

Molybdenum ore and concentrates, other 2613.90.0000 17.8¢/kg.

Molybdenum chemicals:

Molybdenum oxides and hydroxides 2825.70.0000 3.2% ad val.

Molybdates of ammonium 2841.70.1000 4.3% ad val.

Molybdates, all others 2841.70.5000 3.7% ad val.

Molybdenum pigments, molybdenum orange 3206.20.0020 3.7% ad val.

Ferroalloys, ferromolybdenum 7202.70.0000 4.5% ad val.

Molybdenum metals:

Powders 8102.10.0000 9.1¢/kg + 1.2% ad val.

Unwrought 8102.94.0000 13.9¢/kg + 1.9% ad val.

Wrought bars and rods 8102.95.3000 6.6% ad val.

Wrought plates, sheets, strips, etc. 8102.95.6000 6.6% ad val.

Wire 8102.96.0000 4.4% ad val.

Waste and scrap 8102.97.0000 Free.

Other 8102.99.0000 3.7% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Désirée E. Polyak [(703) 648–4909, dpo[email protected]]

110

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

MOLYBDENUM

Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2019, the estimated average molybdic oxide price decreased by 4% compared with

that of 2018, and U.S. estimated mine output of molybdenum increased by 7% from that of 2018. The increase in

production was seen mainly at byproduct mines. Byproduct molybdenum production continued at the Bagdad,

Morenci, Pinto Valley, and Sierrita Mines in Arizona; the Continental Pit Mine in Montana; the Robinson Mine in

Nevada; and the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah. Primary molybdenum production continued at the Climax and

Henderson Mines in Colorado. The Thompson Creek Mine in Idaho continued to be on care-and-maintenance status

in 2019.

Estimated U.S. imports for consumption decreased slightly from those of 2018. U.S. exports increased by 17% from

those of 2018. Roasted and unroasted concentrate exports increased by 26% and 13%, respectively, compared with

those during the same period in 2018. Apparent consumption decreased by 22% compared with that of 2018.

Global molybdenum production in 2019 decreased slightly compared with 2018. In descending order of production,

China, Chile, the United States, Peru, and Mexico provided more than 90% of total global production.

World Mine Production and Reserves: The reserves estimate for Peru was revised based on new information from

Government reports.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

(thousand metric tons)

United States 41,400 44,000 2,700

Argentina

600 600 100

Armenia

5,000 5,400 150

Canada 4,680 4,700 100

Chile 60,200 54,000 1,400

China

133,000 130,000 8,300

Iran

3,500 3,500 43

Mexico 15,100 16,000 130

Mongolia 1,800 1,800 210

Peru 28,000 28,000 2,900

Russia

2,800 2,800 1,000

Turkey

900 900 700

Uzbekistan

200 200 60

World total (rounded) 297,000 290,000 18,000

World Resources: Identified resources of molybdenum in the United States are about 5.4 million tons, and in the rest

of the world, about 20 million tons. Molybdenum occurs as the principal metal sulfide in large low-grade porphyry

molybdenum deposits and as an associated metal sulfide in low-grade porphyry copper deposits. Resources of

molybdenum are adequate to supply world needs for the foreseeable future.

Substitutes: There is little substitution for molybdenum in its major application in steels and cast irons. In fact,

because of the availability and versatility of molybdenum, industry has sought to develop new materials that benefit

from its alloying properties. Potential substitutes include boron, chromium, niobium (columbium), and vanadium in

alloy steels; tungsten in tool steels; graphite, tantalum, and tungsten for refractory materials in high-temperature

electric furnaces; and cadmium-red, chrome-orange, and organic-orange pigments for molybdenum orange.

Estimated. E Net exporter.

Reported consumption of primary molybdenum products.

Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for concentrate, consumer, and product producer stock changes.

Time-weighted average price per kilogram of molybdenum contained in technical-grade molybdic oxide, as reported by CRU Group.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

111

NICKEL

(Data in metric tons of nickel content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, the underground Eagle Mine in Michigan produced approximately 14,000

tons of nickel in concentrate, which was exported to smelters in Canada and overseas. In October, the mine

processed the first ore from the newly developed Eagle East extension. As part of the Superfund Redevelopment

Initiative, a company in Missouri constructed a facility to recover metals, including nickel, from mine tailings. Nickel in

crystalline sulfate was produced as a byproduct of smelting and refining platinum-group-metal ores mined in Montana.

In the United States, the leading uses for primary nickel are stainless and alloy steels, nonferrous alloys and

superalloys, electroplating, and other uses including catalysts and chemicals. Domestic production of stainless steel

was estimated to have decreased by approximately 10% in 2019. Consumption of nickel used in alloys for jet turbine

engines continued to increase.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Mine 27,200 24,100 22,100 17,600 14,000

Refinery, byproduct W W W W W

Imports:

Ores and concentrates 24 (

) 64 3 —

Primary 130,000 111,000 150,000 144,000 120,000

Secondary 27,100 32,300 38,100 45,100 38,000

Exports:

Ores and concentrates 25,400 22,400 20,000

19,000 19,000

Primary 9,610 10,300 11,000 9,780 13,000

Secondary 51,900 63,700 51,500 67,200 49,000

Consumption:

Estimated, primary metal 110,000 98,000 100,000 110,000 110,000

Estimated, secondary 120,000 130,000 130,000 120,000 120,000

Apparent, primary metal

118,000 104,000 140,000 136,000 110,000

Apparent, total

234,000 235,000 273,000 259,000 230,000

Price, average annual, London Metal

Exchange (LME):

Cash, dollars per metric ton 11,831 9,594 10,403 13,114 14,000

Cash, dollars per pound 5.367 4.352 4.719 5.977 6.30

Stocks, yearend:

Consumer 19,200 15,100 14,600 16,300 16,000

LME U.S. warehouses 4,212 5,232 3,780 2,268 2,000

Net import reliance

as a percentage of total

apparent consumption 50 44 51 52 47

Recycling: Nickel in alloyed form was recovered from the processing of nickel-containing waste, including flue dust,

grinding swarf, mill scale, and shot blast generated during the manufacturing of stainless steel; filter cakes, plating

solutions, spent catalysts, spent pickle liquor, sludges, and all types of spent nickel-containing batteries. Nickel-

containing alloys and stainless steel scrap were also melted and used to produce new alloys and stainless steel. In

2019, recycled nickel in all forms accounted for approximately 47% of apparent consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): Nickel contained in ferronickel, metal, oxides, and salt: Canada, 41%; Norway, 11%;

Australia, 8%; Finland, 8%; and other, 32%. Nickel-containing scrap, including nickel content of stainless-steel scrap:

Canada, 38%; Mexico, 28%; United Kingdom, 9%; and other, 25%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Nickel ores and concentrates, nickel content 2604.00.0040 Free.

Ferronickel 7202.60.0000 Free.

Unwrought nickel, not alloyed 7502.10.0000 Free.

Nickel waste and scrap 7503.00.0000 Free.

Nickel powders 7504.00.0010 Free.

Nickel flakes 7504.00.0050 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

112

Prepared by Michele E. McRae [(703) 648–7743, mmcra[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

NICKEL

Government Stockpile:

The U.S. Department of Energy is holding nickel ingot contaminated by low-level

radioactivity at Paducah, KY, and shredded nickel scrap at Oak Ridge, TN. Ongoing decommissioning activities at

former nuclear defense sites were expected to generate additional nickel in scrap. See the Lithium chapter for

statistics on lithium-nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide.

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Nickel alloys, gross weight 592 — 68 — 272

Events, Trends, and Issues: The Government of Indonesia decided to reinstate its ban on direct-shipping nickel ore

beginning in January 2020, 2 years earlier than previously announced. The Government had relaxed enforcement of

the ban in 2017 following rapid development of the country’s nickel-processing capacity, primarily smelters producing

nickel pig iron. The return to the regulation was reportedly in order to conserve ore for the domestic processing

industry.

In January 2019, a company in Indonesia’s Central Sulawesi Province broke ground on a project to produce nickel

and cobalt for use in batteries. Globally, numerous idled facilities and delayed development projects resumed activity

in anticipation of growing demand for nickel in electric vehicle batteries.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Canada, and Russia were revised based on new

information from company or Government reports.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 17,600 14,000 110,000

Australia 170,000 180,000

20,000,000

Brazil 74,400 67,000 11,000,000

Canada 176,000 180,000 2,600,000

China 110,000 110,000 2,800,000

Cuba 51,000 51,000 5,500,000

Indonesia 606,000 800,000 21,000,000

New Caledonia

216,000 220,000 NA

Philippines 345,000 420,000 4,800,000

Russia 272,000 270,000 6,900,000

Other countries 366,000 370,000 14,000,000

World total (rounded) 2,400,000 2,700,000 89,000,000

World Resources: Identified land-based resources averaging 1% nickel or greater contain at least 130 million tons of

nickel, with about 60% in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits. Extensive nickel resources also are found in

manganese crusts and nodules on the ocean floor. The decline in discovery of new sulfide deposits in traditional

mining districts has led to exploration in more challenging locations such as east-central Africa and the subarctic.

Substitutes: Low-nickel, duplex, or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels are being substituted for austenitic grades in

construction. Nickel-free specialty steels are sometimes used in place of stainless steel in the power-generating and

petrochemical industries. Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel metal or nickel-base alloys in corrosive chemical

environments. Lithium-ion batteries may be used instead of nickel metal hydride batteries in certain applications.

Estimated. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.

Less than ½ unit.

Estimated. The U.S. Census Bureau reported that exports of nickel in ores and concentrates were 54,600 tons in 2018; all or part of these data

have been referred to the U.S. Census Bureau for verification.

Defined as primary imports – primary exports + adjustments for industry stock changes, excluding secondary consumer stocks.

Defined as apparent primary metal consumption + estimated secondary consumption.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for consumer stock changes.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 5.4 million tons.

Overseas territory of France.

113

NIOBIUM (COLUMBIUM)

(Data in metric tons of niobium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Significant U.S. niobium mine production has not been reported since 1959.

Companies in the United States produced niobium-containing materials from imported niobium concentrates, oxides,

and ferroniobium. Niobium was consumed mostly in the form of ferroniobium by the steel industry and as niobium

alloys and metal by the aerospace industry. In 2019, there was a decrease in reported consumption of niobium for

high-strength low alloy steel and superalloy applications. Major end-use distribution of reported niobium consumption

was as follows: steels, about 78%, and superalloys, about 22%. The estimated value of niobium consumption was

$460 million, as measured by the value of imports.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, mine — — — — —

Imports for consumption

8,520 8,250 9,330 11,200 11,000

Exports

1,430 1,480 1,490 955 570

Shipments from Government stockpile — — — — —

Consumption:

Apparent

7,080 6,730 7,780 10,100 9,900

Reported

7,510 7,370 7,640 7,130 6,000

Unit value, ferroniobium, dollars per kilogram

24 21 20 21 23

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: Niobium was recycled when niobium-bearing steels and superalloys were recycled; scrap recovery,

specifically for niobium content, was negligible. The amount of niobium recycled is not available, but it may be as

much as 20% of apparent consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): Niobium ore and concentrate: Rwanda, 39%; Brazil, 19%; Australia, 16%; Congo

(Kinshasa), 10%; and other, 16%. Niobium oxide: Brazil, 48%; Russia, 25%; Thailand, 10%; Estonia, 9%; and other,

8%. Ferroniobium and niobium metal: Brazil, 70%; Canada, 26%; Germany, 2%; and other, 2%. Total imports: Brazil,

67%; Canada, 23%; Russia, 3%; Germany, 2%; and other, 5%. Of the U.S. niobium material imports (by contained

weight), 75% was ferroniobium, 14% was niobium metal, 10% was niobium oxide, and 1% was niobium ores and

concentrates.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Synthetic tantalum-niobium concentrates 2615.90.3000 Free.

Niobium ores and concentrates 2615.90.6030 Free.

Niobium oxide 2825.90.1500 3.7% ad val.

Ferroniobium:

Less than 0.02% P or S,

or less than 0.4% Si 7202.93.4000 5% ad val.

Other 7202.93.8000 5% ad val.

Niobium:

Waste and scrap

8112.92.0600 Free.

Powders and unwrought metal 8112.92.4000 4.9% ad val.

Niobium, other

8112.99.9000 4% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile:

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Ferroniobium (gross weight) 407 209 — — —

Niobium metal (gross weight) 10 — — — —

Prepared by Abraham J. Padilla [(703) 648–4965, [email protected]v]

114

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

NIOBIUM (COLUMBIUM)

Events, Trends, and Issues: Niobium principally was imported in the form of ferroniobium. Based on data through

August 2019, U.S. niobium apparent consumption (measured in contained niobium) for 2019 was estimated to be

9,900 tons, slightly less than that of 2018. Brazil continued to be the world’s leading niobium producer with 88% of

global production, followed by Canada with 10%. Global niobium production is thought to have increased in 2019

owing to anticipated growing demand for ferroniobium from steel manufacturers in China following the country’s

implementation of higher rebar strength standards beginning in November 2018. Niobium was increasingly

substituted for vanadium as a microalloying additive in high-strength rebar owing to the supply deficit and high price

volatility of ferrovanadium. Based on data through August 2019, ferroniobium imports into China were estimated to

have increased by 50% in 2019 compared with the previous year.

One domestic company developing its Elk Creek project in Nebraska announced a new mine design that was

expected to increase the mine life by 4 years and reduce the environmental impacts of its operation. The new design

included an onsite water treatment system that would eliminate the need to discharge excess process water into the

nearby Missouri River, more efficient recycling of mineral-processing reagents, and the use of advanced emission

control technologies that would result in reduced air emissions. The company submitted its construction air permit to

the State of Nebraska in July. The project would be the only niobium mine and primary niobium processing facility in

the United States. It was expected to begin production after 2020.

In January, a leading niobium producer in Brazil announced plans to increase its annual ferroniobium production

capacity by 50% to 150,000 tons (approximately 98,000 tons of contained niobium). The company expected to invest

$200 million in the expansion which would be completed before the end of 2020.

World Mine Production and Reserves: The reserves data for the United States and Brazil were revised based on

information reported by niobium-producing companies and the Governments of those countries.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States — — 210,000

Brazil 59,000 65,000 11,000,000

Canada 7,700 7,600 1,600,000

Other countries 1,460 1,500 NA

World total (rounded) 68,200 74,000 >13,000,000

World Resources: World resources of niobium are more than adequate to supply projected needs. Most of the

world’s identified resources of niobium occur as pyrochlore in carbonatite (igneous rocks that contain more than 50%-

by-volume carbonate minerals) deposits and are outside the United States. The United States has approximately

1,400,000 tons of niobium in identified resources, most of which were considered subeconomic at 2019 prices for

niobium.

Substitutes: The following materials can be substituted for niobium, but a performance loss or higher cost may

ensue: ceramic matrix composites, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten in high-temperature (superalloy)

applications; molybdenum, tantalum, and titanium as alloying elements in stainless and high-strength steels; and

molybdenum and vanadium as alloying elements in high-strength low-alloy steels.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Imports and exports include the estimated niobium content of ferroniobium, niobium and tantalum ores and concentrates, niobium oxide, and

niobium powders and unwrought metal.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government stock changes.

Only includes ferroniobium and nickel niobium.

Unit value is weighted average unit value of gross weight of U.S. ferroniobium trade. (Trade is imports plus exports.)

This category includes niobium-containing material and other material.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

115

NITROGEN (FIXED)—AMMONIA

(Data in thousand metric tons of contained nitrogen unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Ammonia was produced by 16 companies at 35 plants in 16 States in the United

States during 2019; 2 additional plants were idle for the entire year. About 60% of total U.S. ammonia production

capacity was in Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas because of their large reserves of natural gas, the dominant

domestic feedstock for ammonia. In 2019, U.S. producers operated at about 90% of rated capacity. The United States

was one of the world’s leading producers and consumers of ammonia. Urea, ammonium nitrate, nitric acid,

ammonium phosphates, and ammonium sulfate were, in descending order of importance, the major derivatives of

ammonia produced in the United States.

Approximately 88% of apparent domestic ammonia consumption was for fertilizer use, including anhydrous ammonia

for direct application, urea, ammonium nitrates, ammonium phosphates, and other nitrogen compounds. Ammonia

also was used to produce explosives, plastics, synthetic fibers and resins, and numerous other chemical compounds.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production

9,590

10,200

11,600

13,100 14,000

Imports for consumption 4,320 3,840 3,090 2,530 2,000

Exports 93 183 612 281 240

Consumption, apparent

13,700 13,800 14,100 15,200 16,000

Stocks, producer, yearend 420 400 320 490 400

Price, dollars per short ton, average, f.o.b. Gulf Coast

481 267 247 281 230

Employment, plant, number

1,200 1,300 1,500 1,600 1,600

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption 30 26 18 14 12

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Trinidad and Tobago, 65%; Canada, 26%; Russia, 3%; Venezuela, 3%; and other, 3%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Ammonia, anhydrous 2814.10.0000 Free.

Urea 3102.10.0000 Free.

Ammonium sulfate 3102.21.0000 Free.

Ammonium nitrate 3102.30.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Not applicable.

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The Henry Hub spot natural gas price ranged between $2.03 and $4.12 per million

British thermal units for most of the year, with an average of about $2.60 per million British thermal units. Natural gas

prices in 2019 were lower than those in 2018; a result of strong supply growth and warmer winter weather compared

with that in 2018. The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, projected that Henry Hub

natural gas spot prices would average $2.52 per million British thermal units in 2020.

The weekly average Gulf Coast ammonia price was $259 per short ton at the beginning of 2019, decreased to $200

per short ton in mid-April, and then increased to $235 per short ton in mid-August. The average ammonia price for

2019 was estimated to be $230 per short ton. In 2019, low natural gas prices resulted in lower ammonia prices.

Prepared by Lori E. Apodaca [(703) 648–7724, lapod[email protected]]

116

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

NITROGEN (FIXED)—AMMONIA

A long period of stable and low natural gas prices in the United States has made it economical for companies to

upgrade existing ammonia plants and construct new nitrogen facilities. The additional capacity has reduced ammonia

imports. Expansion in the ammonia industry took place throughout the past 5 years; however, no additional ammonia

plants are expected to be commissioned before 2022. The newest U.S. ammonia plant located in Freeport, TX,

became operational in 2018.

Global ammonia capacity is expected to increase by a total of 4% during the next 4 years. Capacity additions are

expected in Africa, Eastern Europe, and south Asia; however, ongoing plant closures will decrease capacity in east

Asia. Demand for ammonia is expected to increase in all regions with the largest increases expected in Africa and

Eastern Europe.

Large corn plantings maintain the continued demand for nitrogen fertilizers. According to the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, U.S. corn growers planted 37.1 million hectares of corn in the 2019 crop-year (July 1, 2018, through June

30, 2019), which was 3% greater than the area planted in 2018. Corn acreage in the 2020 crop-year is expected to

increase because of anticipated higher returns for corn compared with those of other crops.

World Ammonia Production and Reserves:

Plant production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 13,100 14,000 Available atmospheric nitrogen and sources

Algeria 1,600 2,300 of natural gas for production of ammonia

Australia 1,300 1,300 are considered adequate for all listed

Belarus 1,050 1,100 countries.

Brazil 1,000 1,000

Canada 3,830 3,800

China 41,000 40,000

Egypt 3,700 4,100

Germany 2,600 2,600

India 11,400 12,000

Indonesia 5,000 5,000

Iran 3,400 3,400

Netherlands 2,400 2,400

Oman 1,700 1,700

Pakistan 3,100 3,100

Poland 2,170 2,200

Qatar 3,100 3,100

Russia 14,900 15,000

Saudi Arabia 4,000 4,300

Trinidad and Tobago 4,000 4,000

Ukraine 1,620 1,600

Uzbekistan 1,200 1,200

Vietnam 1,100 1,100

Other countries 15,800 15,000

World total (rounded) 144,000 150,000

World Resources: The availability of nitrogen from the atmosphere for fixed nitrogen production is unlimited.

Mineralized occurrences of sodium and potassium nitrates, such as those found in the Atacama Desert of Chile,

contribute minimally to the global nitrogen supply.

Substitutes: Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient that has no substitute. No practical substitutes for nitrogen

explosives and blasting agents are known.

Estimated.

Source: The Fertilizer Institute; data adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey.

Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Source: Green Markets.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

117

PEAT

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: The estimated free on board (f.o.b.) mine value of marketable peat production in the

conterminous United States was $14 million in 2019. Peat was harvested and processed by about 28 companies in

12 conterminous States. Florida, Michigan, and Minnesota were the leading producing States, in order of quantity

harvested. Reed-sedge peat accounted for approximately 87% of the total volume produced, followed by sphagnum

moss with 10%. Domestic peat applications included earthworm culture medium, golf course construction, mixed

fertilizers, mushroom culture, nurseries, packing for flowers and plants, seed inoculants, and vegetable cultivation. In

the industrial sector, peat was used as an oil absorbent and as an efficient filtration medium for the removal of

waterborne contaminants in mine waste streams, municipal storm drainage, and septic systems.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production 455 441 498 479 470

Sales by producers 460 443 515 545 540

Imports for consumption 1,150 1,130 1,150 1,200 1,100

Exports 28 30 30 37 40

Consumption, apparent

1,620 1,590 1,520 1,670 1,600

Price, average value, f.o.b. mine, dollars per ton 28.39 31.97 27.55 25.88 28.50

Stocks, producer, yearend 179 125 222 196 180

Employment, mine and plant, number

550 550 540 540 500

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 72 72 67 71 70

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 95%; and other, 5%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Peat 2703.00.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 5% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Peat is an important component of plant-growing media, and the demand for peat

generally follows that of horticultural applications. In the United States, the short-term outlook is for production to

average about 470,000 tons per year and imported peat from Canada is expected to continue to account for more

than 70% of domestic consumption. Imports for 2019 were estimated to have decreased to 1.1 million tons from 1.2

million tons in 2018, and exports were estimated to have increased to about 40,000 tons from 37,000 tons in 2018.

Peat stocks were estimated to have decreased in 2019 owing to a wet peat harvesting season causing a decrease in

peat production in some parts of the country. Based on estimated world production for 2019, the world’s leading peat

producers were, in descending order of production, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Belarus, and Sweden.

Africa’s first peat-fired powerplant in Gishoma, Rwanda, produced energy at its 15-megawatt-capacity facility, which

added to the national power grid in 2019. Another peat-fired powerplant was under construction in Gisagara, Rwanda,

and was expected to be operational in 2020. The peat-fired powerplants are anticipated to increase the national

power capacity by about 40% when fully operational, bringing Rwanda closer to its goal of energy independence.

Prepared by Amanda S. Brioche [(703) 648–7747, abrioche@usgs.gov]

118

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

PEAT

In other parts of the world, concerns about climate change prompted several countries to plan to decrease or

eliminate the use of peat, owing to peatland’s ability to act as a carbon sink. Ireland’s peat production was expected

to decrease over the coming years owing to its transition to alternative fuel sources. The country was aiming to have

at least 80% of its fossil fuel sector employment transitioned to the renewable energy sector by 2025. Ireland

announced in 2019 that it planned to stop all peat harvesting by 2028, 2 years ahead of the previously announced

schedule. In 2019, Finland announced its goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2035. To achieve this, peat production

will be phased out in favor for other forms of noncarbon energy. Presently, about 40% of Finland’s energy

consumption is supplied by peat and other fossil fuels. Several European countries, including Belarus, Ireland, and

Sweden, were planning or implementing peatland restoration projects to help combat greenhouse gas emissions and

restore wildlife habitats. These initiatives were expected to decrease peat production across Europe in the future.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for countries that reported by volume only and had insufficient

data for conversion to tons were combined and included with “Other countries.” Reserves for Latvia were updated

with information from company reports.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 479 470 150,000

Belarus 2,620 2,600 2,600,000

Canada 1,240 1,300 720,000

Estonia 1,030 1,000 60,000

Finland 9,970 10,000 6,000,000

Germany 3,800 4,000 (

)

Ireland 3,000 3,000 (

)

Latvia 1,900 1,900 230,000

Lithuania 510 500 210,000

Poland 700 700 (

)

Russia 800 800 1,000,000

Sweden 2,450 2,500 (

)

Ukraine 590 600 (

)

United Kingdom 700 — (

)

Other countries

610 600 1,400,000

World total (rounded) 30,400 30,000 12,000,000

World Resources: Peat is a renewable resource, continuing to accumulate on 60% of global peatlands. However,

the volume of global peatlands has been decreasing at a rate of 0.05% annually owing to harvesting and land

development. Many countries evaluate peat resources based on volume or area because the variations in densities

and thickness of peat deposits make it difficult to estimate tonnage. Volume data have been converted using the

average bulk density of peat produced in that country. Reserves data were estimated based on data from

International Peat Society publications and the percentage of peat resources available for peat extraction. More than

50% of the U.S. peat resources are located in undisturbed areas of Alaska.

Substitutes: Natural organic materials, such as composted yard waste and coir (coconut fiber), compete with peat in

horticultural applications. Shredded paper and straw are used to hold moisture for some grass-seeding applications.

The superior water-holding capacity and physiochemical properties of peat limit substitution alternatives in most

applications.

Estimated. — Zero.

Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Included with “Other countries.”

119

PERLITE

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, the quantity of domestic processed crude perlite sold and used was

estimated to be 480,000 tons with a value of $35 million. Crude ore production was from eight mines operated by six

companies in five Western States. New Mexico and Oregon continued to be the leading producing States. Processed

crude perlite was expanded at 56 plants in 27 States. Domestic apparent consumption was 670,000 tons. The

applications for expanded perlite were building construction products, 58%; fillers, 18%; horticultural aggregate, 16%;

filter aid, 4%; and other, 4%. Other applications included specialty insulation and miscellaneous uses.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Mine production, crude ore 501 521 570

510 520

Sold and used, processed crude perlite 444 437 479

460 480

Imports for consumption

154 199 171 204 200

Exports

18 16 18 16 13

Consumption, apparent

580 620 632

620 670

Price, average value, dollars per ton, f.o.b. mine 61 65 73 72 72

Employment, mine and mill, number 142 135 139 130 140

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 23 30 24 30 28

Recycling: Not available.

Import Sources (2015–18): Greece, 89%; China, 8%; Mexico, 2%; and other, 1%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Vermiculite, perlite and

chlorites, unexpanded 2530.10.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 10% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Perlite is a siliceous volcanic glass that expands up to 20 times its original volume

when rapidly heated. In horticultural uses, expanded perlite is used to provide moisture retention and aeration without

compaction when added to soil. Owing primarily to cost, some commercial greenhouse growers in the United States

have recently switched to a wood fiber material over perlite. Perlite, however, remained a preferred soil amendment

for segments of greenhouse growers because it does not degrade or compact over lengthy growing times and is inert.

Construction applications for expanded perlite are numerous because it is lightweight, fire resistant, and an excellent

insulator. Novel and small markets for perlite have increased during the past 10 years; cosmetics, environmental

remediation, personal care products, and marijuana growing have become increasing markets for perlite. Exploration

continued at a perlite deposit in Nevada that could be developed as a potential supplier of crude perlite ore for

industrial and household applications.

Prepared by Madan M. Singh [Contact Ashley Hatfield, (703) 648–7751, ahatfield@usgs.gov]

120

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

PERLITE

Domestic perlite mining generally takes place in remote areas, and its environmental impact is not severe. The

mineral fines, overburden, and reject ore produced during ore mining and processing are used to reclaim the mined-

out areas, and, therefore, little waste remains. Airborne dust is captured by baghouses, and virtually no runoff

contributes to water pollution.

Based on estimated world production for 2019, the world’s leading producers were, in descending order of production,

China, Greece, Turkey, and the United States, with about 47%, 20%, 16%, and 13%, respectively, of world

production. Although China was the leading producer, most of its perlite production was thought to be consumed

internally. Greece and Turkey remained the leading exporters of perlite.

World Perlite Production and Reserves:

Production Reserves

2018 2019

United States

e, 5

510

520 50,000

Argentina 20 20 NA

Armenia 45 45 NA

China 1,900 1,900 NA

Greece 750 800 120,000

Hungary 39 40 49,000

Iran 20 20 NA

Mexico 20 20 NA

New Zealand 20 20 NA

Turkey 650 650 57,000

Other countries 50 50 NA

World total (rounded) 4,020 4,100 NA

World Resources: Perlite occurrences in Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, and Oregon are thought to contain

large resources. Significant deposits have been reported in China, Greece, Hungary, and Turkey, and a few other

countries. Insufficient information is available to make reliable estimates of resources in many perlite-producing

countries.

Substitutes: In construction applications, diatomite, expanded clay and shale, pumice, and slag can be substituted

for perlite. For horticultural uses, vermiculite, coco coir, wood pulp, and pumice are alternative soil additives and are

sometimes used in conjunction with perlite.

Estimated. NA Not available.

Exports and imports were estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey from U.S. Census Bureau combined data for

vermiculite, perlite, and chlorites,

unexpanded.

Defined as sold or used processed perlite + imports – exports.

Defined as imports − exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Mine production of crude ore.

121

PHOSPHATE ROCK

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, phosphate rock ore was mined by five firms at 10 mines in four States and

processed into an estimated 23 million tons of marketable product, valued at $1.6 billion, free on board (f.o.b.) mine.

Florida and North Carolina accounted for more than 75% of total domestic output; the remainder was produced in

Idaho and Utah. Marketable product refers to beneficiated phosphate rock with phosphorus pentoxide (P

) content

suitable for phosphoric acid or elemental phosphorus production. More than 95% of the phosphate rock mined in the

United States was used to manufacture wet-process phosphoric acid and superphosphoric acid, which were used as

intermediate feedstocks in the manufacture of granular and liquid ammonium phosphate fertilizers and animal feed

supplements. Approximately 50% of the wet-process phosphoric acid produced was exported in the form of upgraded

granular diammonium (DAP) and monoammonium phosphate (MAP) fertilizer, and merchant-grade phosphoric acid.

The balance of the phosphate rock mined was for the manufacture of elemental phosphorus, which was used to

produce phosphorus compounds for industrial applications, primarily glyphosate herbicide.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, marketable 27,400 27,100 27,900 25,800 23,000

Sold or used by producers 26,200 26,700 26,300 23,300 23,000

Imports for consumption 1,960 1,590 2,470 2,770 2,000

Consumption, apparent

28,100 28,200 28,800 26,000 25,000

Price, average value, dollars per ton, f.o.b. mine

72.41 76.90 73.67 70.77 70.00

Stocks, producer, yearend 6,730 7,450 8,440 10,600 10,000

Employment, mine and beneficiation plant, number

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 4 4 5 2 10

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Peru, 79%; Morocco, 20%; and other, 1%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Natural calcium phosphates:

Unground 2510.10.0000 Free.

Ground 2510.20.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic phosphate rock production was lower in 2019 owing to the temporary closure

of one mine in Florida and companies reducing stocks of phosphate rock. Domestic consumption was 4% lower

because of lower production of phosphoric acid and fertilizers. Imports were lower as the result of the permanent

closure at the end of 2018 of a phosphoric acid plant in Louisiana that used imported phosphate rock and the

temporary closure of another plant in Louisiana in the fourth quarter of 2019.

The leading phosphate rock producer in the United States permanently closed a phosphoric acid and fertilizer plant in

June 2019 as part of corporate restructuring. The facility had been idled since 2017 and the phosphate rock mine that

supplied the plant closed in late 2018. Another company planned to use the facility to manufacture organic fertilizers.

The only U.S. producer of elemental phosphorus received approval for a new phosphate rock mine in Idaho. The new

mine would replace the current mine when the ore is depleted in about 10 years. U.S. phosphate rock annual mine

production capacity was expected to remain at 31.1 million tons in 2020.

According to industry analysts, the rated capacity of global phosphate rock mines was projected to increase to 177

million tons in 2023 from 157 million tons in 2019, not including official capacity data for China. Production of

marketable phosphate rock in China was thought to be between 80 and 85 million tons per year, compared with

official production statistics of 110 million tons per year that included some crude ore production. Most of the

increases in production capacity were planned for Africa and the Middle East, where major expansion projects were in

progress in Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, and Togo.

122

Prepared by Stephen M. Jasinski [(703) 648–7711, s[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

PHOSPHATE ROCK

A Russian company restarted production of phosphate rock in Syria in 2018. The mine had been closed since late

2015 because of the conflicts in the region. The Russian company signed a 50-year operating agreement with the

Government of Syria to operate the mine. The company planned to produce about 2.2 million tons per year.

Production data for Syria have not been verified.

World consumption of P

, contained in phosphoric acid, fertilizers, and other products, was projected to increase to

50 million tons in 2023 from 47 million tons in 2019. Africa, India, and South America accounted for about 75% of the

projected growth. U.S. consumption of P

was expected to remain between 4.0 and 4.5 million tons per year.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Israel, Peru, and South Africa were revised based on industry

reports. Reserves for Australia were revised based on Government information.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 25,800 23,000 1,000,000

Algeria 1,200 1,200 2,200,000

Australia 2,800 2,700

1,200,000

Brazil 5,740 5,300 1,700,000

China

120,000 110,000 3,200,000

Egypt 5,000 5,000 1,300,000

Finland 989 1,000 1,000,000

India 1,600 1,600 46,000

Israel 3,550 3,500 62,000

Jordan 8,020 8,000 1,000,000

Kazakhstan 1,300 1,300 260,000

Mexico 1,540 1,500 30,000

Morocco and Western Sahara 34,800 36,000 50,000,000

Peru 3,900 3,700 210,000

Russia 14,000 14,000 600,000

Saudi Arabia 6,090 6,200 1,400,000

Senegal 1,650 1,600 50,000

South Africa 2,100 1,900 1,400,000

Syria 100 2,000 1,800,000

Togo 800 800 30,000

Tunisia 3,340 3,000 100,000

Uzbekistan 900 900 100,000

Vietnam 3,300 5,500 30,000

Other countries 970 1,000 770,000

World total (rounded) 249,000 240,000 69,000,000

World Resources: Some world reserves were reported only in terms of ore tonnage and grade. Phosphate rock

resources occur principally as sedimentary marine phosphorites. The largest sedimentary deposits are found in

northern Africa, China, the Middle East, and the United States. Significant igneous occurrences are found in Brazil,

Canada, Finland, Russia, and South Africa. Large phosphate resources have been identified on the continental

shelves and on seamounts in the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. World resources of phosphate rock are more

than 300 billion tons. There are no imminent shortages of phosphate rock.

Substitutes: There are no substitutes for phosphorus in agriculture.

Estimated.

Defined as phosphate rock sold or used by producers + imports. U.S. producers stopped exporting phosphate rock in 2003.

Marketable phosphate rock, weighted value, all grades.

Defined as imports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 81 million tons.

Production data for large mines only, as reported by the National Bureau of Statistics of China.

123

PLATINUM-GROUP METALS

(Palladium, platinum, iridium, osmium, rhodium, and ruthenium)

(Data in kilograms of platinum-group-metal content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: One company in Montana produced over 15,000 kilograms of platinum-group

metals (PGMs) with an estimated value of about $680 million. Small quantities of primary PGMs also were recovered

as byproducts of copper-nickel mining in Michigan; however, this material was sold to foreign companies for refining.

The leading domestic use for PGMs was in catalytic converters to decrease harmful emissions from automobiles.

Platinum-group metals are also used in catalysts for bulk-chemical production and petroleum refining; dental and

medical devices; electronic applications, such as in computer hard disks, hybridized integrated circuits, and multilayer

ceramic capacitors; glass manufacturing; investment; jewelry; and laboratory equipment.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Mine production:

Palladium 12,500 13,100 13,600 14,300 12,000

Platinum 3,670 3,890 3,980 4,160 3,600

Imports for consumption:

Palladium 85,300 80,400 86,000 92,900 76,000

Platinum 42,700 42,300 53,200 58,500 38,000

PGM waste and scrap 123,000 154,000 354,000 40,700 38,000

Iridium 1,010 1,300 1,420 1,020 910

Osmium 8 27 856 25 —

Rhodium 10,600 10,700 11,600 14,500 14,000

Ruthenium 8,230 8,410 14,600 17,900 9,900

Exports:

Palladium 23,000 17,500 52,300 53,300 50,000

Platinum 14,400 14,000 16,700 18,900 17,000

PGM waste and scrap 246,000 48,100 55,500 31,800 19,000

Rhodium 759 794 844 2,010 1,600

Other PGMs 781 736 939 2,600 1,300

Consumption, apparent

4, 5

Palladium 117,000 118,000 89,300 95,900 80,000

Platinum 40,800 43,200 51,500 53,800 33,000

Price,

dollars per troy ounce:

Palladium 694.99 617.39 874.30 1,036.43 1,500.00

Platinum 1,056.09 989.52 951.23 882.66 850.00

Iridium 544.19 586.90 908.35 1,293.27 1,500.00

Rhodium 954.90 696.84 1,112.59 2,225.30 3,300.00

Ruthenium 47.63 42.00 76.86 244.41 270.00

Employment, mine, number

1,439 1,432 1,432 1,628 1,400

Net import reliance

5, 7

as a percentage of

apparent consumption:

Palladium 53 53 38 41 32

Platinum 66 66 71 74 64

Recycling: About 116,000 kilograms of palladium and platinum was recovered globally from new and old scrap in

2018, including about 49,000 kilograms recovered from automobile catalytic converters in the United States.

Import Sources (2015–18): Palladium: South Africa, 33%; Russia, 33%; Germany, 7%; Italy, 7%; and other, 20%.

Platinum: South Africa, 46%; Germany, 16%; Italy, 7%; Russia, 6%; and other, 25%.

Tariff: All unwrought and semimanufactured forms of PGMs are imported duty free. See footnotes for specific

Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Prepared by Ruth F. Schulte [(703) 648–4963, [email protected]]

124

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

PLATINUM-GROUP METALS

Government Stockpile:

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Iridium 15 — 15 — 15

Platinum 261 — 261 — 261

Events, Trends, and Issues: Progress continued at a domestic mine expansion project; full production from the

project was expected by late 2021. Based on platinum content, imports of PGM waste and scrap decreased by 89%

in 2018 compared with imports in 2017 and remained at similarly low levels in 2019; however, imports of PGM waste

and scrap based on gross weight only decreased by 12% during the same time period. This indicates that imported

PGM waste and scrap has increased in content of PGMs other than platinum.

Production of PGMs in South Africa, the world’s leading supplier of mined material, decreased by 4% compared with

that of 2018 owing to increased labor costs, increased costs for electricity, an unreliable supply of electricity, and

challenges related to deep-level mining.

The estimated annual average prices of iridium, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium increased by 15%, 41%, 50%,

and 8%, respectively, compared with those of 2018. The estimated average annual price of platinum was 3% lower

than that of 2018, continuing a 5-year trend of declining prices. The price of palladium remained higher than that of

platinum in 2019, with palladium prices exceeding a previous high of $1,036.82 in January 2013 and platinum prices

decreasing to their lowest level in a decade.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production PGM

Palladium Platinum Reserves

2018 2019

United States 14,300 12,000 4,160 3,600 900,000

Canada 20,000 20,000 7,400 7,400 310,000

Russia 90,000 86,000 22,000 22,000 3,900,000

South Africa 80,600 80,000 137,000 130,000 63,000,000

Zimbabwe 12,000 12,000 15,000 15,000 1,200,000

Other countries 2,920 3,000 4,470 4,300 NA

World total (rounded) 220,000 210,000 190,000 180,000 69,000,000

World Resources: World resources of PGMs are estimated to total more than 100 million kilograms. The largest

reserves are in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa.

Substitutes: Palladium has been substituted for platinum in most gasoline-engine catalytic converters because of the

historically lower price for palladium relative to that of platinum. About 25% of palladium can routinely be substituted

for platinum in diesel catalytic converters; the proportion can be as much as 50% in some applications. For some

industrial end uses, one PGM can substitute for another, but with losses in efficiency.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Estimates from published sources.

Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 7110.11.0010, 7110.11.0020, 7110.11.0050,

7110.19.0000, 7110.21.0000, 7110.29.0000, 7110.31.0000, 7110.39.0000, 7110.41.0010, 7110.41.0020, 7110.41.0030, 7110.49.0010,

7112.92.0000, and 7118.90.0020.

Includes data for the following Schedule B codes: 7110.11.0000, 7110.19.0000, 7110.21.0000, 7110.29.0000, 7110.31.0000, 7110.39.0000,

7110.41.0000, 7110.49.0000, and 7112.92.0000.

Defined as primary production + secondary production + imports – exports.

Excludes imports and (or) exports of waste and scrap.

Engelhard Corp. unfabricated metal.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

125

POTASH

(Data in thousand metric tons of K

O equivalent unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, the estimated sales value of marketable potash, f.o.b. mine, was $400

million, which was about the same as that in 2018. Potash denotes a variety of mined and manufactured salts, which

contain the element potassium in water-soluble form. In agriculture, the term potash refers to potassic fertilizers,

which are potassium chloride (KCl), potassium sulfate or sulfate of potash (SOP), and potassium magnesium sulfate

(SOPM) or langbeinite. Muriate of potash (MOP) is an agriculturally acceptable mix of KCl (95% pure or greater) and

sodium chloride for fertilizer use. The majority of U.S. production was from southeastern New Mexico, where two

companies operated two underground mines and one deep-well solution mine. Sylvinite and langbeinite ores in New

Mexico were beneficiated by flotation, dissolution-recrystallization, heavy-media separation, solar evaporation, and

(or) combinations of these processes, and accounted for about 50% of total U.S. producer sales. In Utah, two

companies operated three facilities. One company extracted underground sylvinite ore by deep-well solution mining.

Solar evaporation crystallized the sylvinite ore from the brine solution, and a flotation process separated the MOP

from byproduct sodium chloride. The firm also processed subsurface brines by solar evaporation and flotation to

produce MOP at its other facility. Another company processed brine from the Great Salt Lake by solar evaporation to

produce SOP and other byproducts.

The fertilizer industry used about 85% of U.S. potash sales, and the remainder was used for chemical and industrial

applications. About 80% of the potash produced was SOPM and SOP, which are required to fertilize certain chloride-

sensitive crops. Muriate of potash accounted for the remaining 20% of production and was used for agricultural and

chemical applications.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, marketable

740 510 480 520 510

Sales by producers, marketable

620 600 490 520 510

Imports for consumption 5,190 4,550 5,870 5,710 5,000

Exports 106 96 128 105 90

Consumption, apparent

1, 2

5,700 5,100 6,200 6,100 5,400

Price, dollars per ton of K

average, all products, f.o.b. mine

880 680 770 750 800

Price, dollars per ton of K

average, muriate, f.o.b. mine

580 350 410 440 480

Employment, number, mine and mill 1,300 1,150 900 900 900

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 89 88 92 92 91

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 81%; Russia, 8%; Belarus, 5%; Israel, 2%; and other, 4%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Potassium nitrate 2834.21.0000 Free.

Potassium chloride 3104.20.0000 Free.

Potassium sulfate 3104.30.0000 Free.

Potassic fertilizers, other 3104.90.0100 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic and world consumption of potash fertilizers was affected by wet conditions

during the planting seasons in many countries during the first half of 2019. This resulted in lower potash sales and

higher inventories worldwide. In the United States, production and sales of all forms of potash decreased slightly as

sales of SOP, SOPM, and MOP for nonfertilizer uses offset some of the lower MOP fertilizer sales. Domestic imports

and consumption fell by more than 12% owing to the poor weather conditions during the spring planting season.

High inventories caused the major world producers to reduce production during the second half of the year. Belarus,

Canada, Chile, Germany, and Israel all had temporary mine and plant closures.

Prepared by Stephen M. Jasinski [(703) 648–7711, s[email protected]v]

126

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

POTASH

World consumption of potash was estimated to have remained about the same as in 2018 at 43 million tons, owing to

increased nonagricultural uses and regional seasonal consumption during the second half of 2019. World production

was estimated to have fallen by 5% compared with 2018, owing to high inventories.

Development of a SOP facility in Utah continued in 2019. The Sevier Playa project, which is about 225 kilometers

southwest of Salt Lake City, would produce SOP from solar evaporation of surface brines. The operating company

received final permits in 2019 and was expected to begin construction in 2020. Production was scheduled to begin in

2022 at 30,000 tons of SOP and ramp up to full capacity of 372,000 tons per year of SOP in 2025.

Global annual potash production capacity was estimated to be 61 million tons in 2019. New mines in Belarus and

Russia, and expansions to existing facilities in Canada and Israel were expected to be completed in 2020. Other

projects in Belarus, Canada, China, Jordan, and the United Kingdom could increase capacity to about 68 million tons

in 2023; however, these projects were dependent on potash market conditions or securing financing for the projects.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Canada, Spain, and the United Kingdom were revised based

on official Government information. Reserves for Russia were revised based on information reported by the

producers. The previously reported reserve information was based on official Government data, which included some

deposits that are considered resources by USGS reserve definition.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

Recoverable ore K2O equivalent

United States

520 510 970,000 220,000

Belarus 7,200 7,000 3,300,000 750,000

Brazil 200 200 310,000 24,000

Canada 13,800 13,300 4,200,000 1,000,000

Chile 1,200 950 NA 100,000

China 5,000 5,000 NA 350,000

Germany 3,200 3,000 NA 150,000

Israel 2,200 2,000 NA

Large

Jordan 1,480 1,500 NA

Large

Laos 200 200 NA 20,000

Russia 7,170 6,800 NA 600,000

Spain 700 600 NA 68,000

Other countries 351 270 1,500,000 300,000

World total (rounded) 43,300 41,000 NA >3,600,000

World Resources: Estimated domestic potash resources total about 7 billion tons. Most of these lie at depths

between 1,800 and 3,100 meters in a 3,110-square-kilometer area of Montana and North Dakota as an extension of

the Williston Basin deposits in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Canada. The Paradox Basin in Utah contains resources

of about 2 billion tons, mostly at depths of more than 1,200 meters. The Holbrook Basin of Arizona contains resources

of about 0.7 to 2.5 billion tons. A large potash resource lies about 2,100 meters under central Michigan and contains

more than 75 million tons. Estimated world resources total about 250 billion tons.

Substitutes: No substitutes exist for potassium as an essential plant nutrient and as an essential nutritional

requirement for animals and humans. Manure and glauconite (greensand) are low-potassium-content sources that

can be profitably transported only short distances to crop fields.

Estimated. NA Not available.

Data are rounded to no more than two significant digits to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Defined as sales + imports – exports.

Includes MOP, SOP, and SOPM. Does not include other chemical compounds that contain potassium.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Israel and Jordan recover potash from the Dead Sea, which contains nearly 2 billion tons of potassium chloride.

127

PUMICE AND PUMICITE

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, 10 operations in five States produced pumice and pumicite. Estimated

production

was 510,000 tons with an estimated processed value of about $17 million, free on board (f.o.b.) plant.

Pumice and pumicite were mined in California, Oregon, Idaho, New Mexico, and Kansas, in descending order of

production. The porous, lightweight properties of pumice are well suited for its main uses. Mined pumice was used in

the production of abrasives, concrete admixtures and aggregates, lightweight building blocks, horticultural purposes,

and other uses, including absorbent, filtration, laundry stone washing, and road use.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, mine

310 374 383 496 510

Imports for consumption 64 170 166 159 110

Exports

11 9 11 11 12

Consumption, apparent

363 535 538 644 610

Price, average value, dollars per ton, f.o.b.

mine or mill 33 38 39 32 33

Employment, mine and mill, number 140 140 140 140 140

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 15 30 29 23 17

Recycling: Little to no known recycling.

Import Sources (2015–18): Greece, 93%; Iceland, 5%; and Mexico, 2%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Pumice, crude or in irregular

pieces, including crushed 2513.10.0010 Free.

Pumice, other 2513.10.0080 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 5% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The amount of domestically produced pumice and pumicite sold or used in 2019 was

estimated to be 3% more than that in 2018. Imports were estimated to have decreased, and exports increased

compared with those of 2018. Since 2015, apparent consumption and quantity of pumice that was sold or used had

followed an upward trend until 2019. Almost all imported pumice originated from Greece in 2019, and primarily

supplied markets in the eastern and Gulf Coast regions of the United States. Turkey, followed by Greece, was the

leading global producer of pumice and pumicite. Although the domestic mill price for pumice was approximately $33

per ton, the average imported value of pumice was approximately $44 per ton.

Pumice and pumicite are plentiful in the Western United States, but legal challenges and public land designations

could limit access to known deposits. Pumice and pumicite production is sensitive to mining and transportation costs.

Although unlikely in the short term, an increase in fuel prices would likely lead to increases in production costs,

making imports and competing materials attractive substitutes for domestic products.

Prepared by Robert D. Crangle, Jr. [(703) 648–6410, rcrangle@usgs.gov]

128

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

PUMICE AND PUMICITE

All known domestic pumice and pumicite mining in 2019 was accomplished through open pit methods, generally in

remote areas, away from major population centers. Although the generation and disposal of reject fines in mining and

milling may result in local dust issues at some operations, such environmental impacts are thought to be restricted to

relatively small geographic areas.

World production of pumice and related material was estimated to be 18 million tons in 2019, which was essentially

unchanged from that of 2018. Pumice is used more extensively as a building material outside the United States,

which explained the large global production of pumice relative to that of the United States. In Europe, basic home

construction uses stone and concrete as the preferred building materials. Prefabricated lightweight concrete walls,

which may contain pumice as lightweight aggregate, are often produced and shipped to construction locations.

Because of their cementitious properties, light weight, and strength, pumice and pumicite perform well in European-

style construction.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States

496 510 Large in the United States. Quantitative

Algeria

900 900 estimates of reserves for most countries

Cameroon

300 300 are not available.

Chile

840 800

Ecuador

630 600

Ethiopia 800 800

France

280 300

Greece

1,130 1,100

Guadeloupe 200 200

Guatemala 570 600

Indonesia 770 770

Jordan 900 900

Saudi Arabia

530 550

Spain 200 200

Syria

200 200

Turkey

7,800 7,800

Uganda 790 800

Other countries

760 670

World total (rounded) 18,100 18,000

World Resources: The identified U.S. resources of pumice and pumicite are concentrated in the Western States and

estimated to be more than 25 million tons. The estimated total resources (identified and undiscovered) in the Western

and Great Plains States are at least 250 million tons and may total more than 1 billion tons. Large resources of

pumice and pumicite have been identified on all continents.

Substitutes: The costs of transportation determine the maximum economic distance pumice and pumicite can be

shipped and still remain competitive with alternative materials. Competitive materials that may be substituted for

pumice and pumicite include crushed aggregates, diatomite, expanded shale and clay, and vermiculite.

Estimated.

Quantity sold and used by producers.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Includes pozzolan and (or) volcanic tuff.

Data reported from a separate official Turkish source indicated a production of 3,430,000 tons in 2018.

129

QUARTZ CRYSTAL (INDUSTRIAL)

(Data in kilograms unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Industrial cultured quartz crystal is electronic-grade quartz crystal that is

manufactured, not mined. In the past, cultured quartz crystal was primarily produced using lascas

as raw quartz feed

material. Lascas

mining and processing in Arkansas ended in 1997. Anectodal evidence indicated that two

companies produced cultured quartz crystal in the United States, but production statistics were not available. In

addition to lascas, these companies may use cultured quartz crystal that has been rejected during the manufacturing

process, owing to crystallographic imperfections, as feed material. The companies may use a mix of cultured quartz

and imported lascas as feed material. In the past several years, cultured quartz crystal has been increasingly

produced overseas, primarily in Asia. Electronic applications accounted for most industrial uses of quartz crystal;

other uses included special optical applications.

Virtually all quartz crystal used for electronics was cultured, rather than natural, crystal. Electronic-grade quartz

crystal is used to make frequency filters, frequency controls, and timers in electronic circuits employed for a wide

range of products, such as communications equipment, computers, and many consumer goods, such as electronic

games and television receivers.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Mine (lascas) — — — — —

Cultured quartz crystal NA NA NA NA NA

Imports for consumption:

Quartz (lascas) NA NA NA NA NA

Piezoelectric quartz, unmounted 3,400 6,280 7,210 16,100 59,000

Exports:

Quartz (lascas) NA NA NA NA NA

Piezoelectric quartz, unmounted 43,600 60,500 57,900 47,500 43,000

Price, dollars per kilogram:

As-grown cultured quartz 280 280 280 280 300

Lumbered quartz

160 890 300 300 500

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption NA NA NA NA NA

Recycling: An unspecified amount of rejected cultured quartz crystal was used as feed material for the production of

cultured quartz crystal.

Import Sources (2015–18): Import statistics specific to lascas are not available because they are combined with

other types of quartz. Cultured quartz crystal (piezoelectric quartz, unmounted): China, 46%; Japan, 24%; Switzerland

and Taiwan, 5% each; and other, 20%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Quartz (including lascas) 2506.10.0050 Free.

Piezoelectric quartz, unmounted 7104.10.0000 3% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 22% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Prepared by Thomas P. Dolley [(703) 648–7710, tdolley@usgs.gov]

130

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

QUARTZ CRYSTAL (INDUSTRIAL)

Government Stockpile:

As of September 30, 2019, the National Defense Stockpile (NDS) contained 7,148

kilograms of natural quartz crystal. The stockpile has 11 weight classes for natural quartz crystal that range from 0.2

kilogram to more than 10 kilograms. The stockpiled crystals, however, are primarily in the larger weight classes. The

larger pieces are suitable as seed crystals, which are very thin crystals cut to exact dimensions, to produce cultured

quartz crystal. In addition, many of the stockpiled crystals could be of interest to the specimen and gemstone industry.

Little, if any, of the stockpiled material is likely to be used in the same applications as cultured quartz crystal. No

natural quartz crystal was sold from the NDS in 2019. Previously, the only individual crystals from the stockpile that

were sold were those that weighed 10 kilograms or more and that could be used as seed material.

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Quartz crystal 7,148 — — — —

Events, Trends, and Issues: Demand for cultured quartz crystal for frequency-control oscillators and frequency

filters in a variety of electronic devices is expected to remain stable. However, silicon has replaced quartz crystal in

two very important markets—cellular telephones and other mobile devices and automotive stability control

applications. Growth of the consumer electronics market, for products such as personal computers, electronic games,

and tablet computers, is likely to continue to sustain global production of cultured quartz crystal.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

This information is unavailable, but the global reserves for lascas are

thought to be large.

World Resources: Limited resources of natural quartz crystal suitable for direct electronic or optical use are available

throughout the world. World dependence on these resources will continue to decline because of the increased

acceptance of cultured quartz crystal as an alternative material. Additionally, techniques using rejected cultured

quartz crystal as feed material could mean a decreased dependence on lascas for growing cultured quartz.

Substitutes: Silicon is increasingly being used as a substitute for quartz crystal for frequency-control oscillators in

electronic circuits. Other materials, such as aluminum orthophosphate (the very rare mineral berlinite), langasite,

lithium niobate, and lithium tantalate, which have larger piezoelectric coupling constants, have been studied and

used. The cost competitiveness of these materials, as opposed to cultured quartz crystal, is dependent on the type of

application that the material is used for and the processing required.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Lascas is a nonelectronic-grade quartz used as a feedstock for growing cultured quartz crystal and for production of fused quartz.

As-grown cultured quartz that has been processed by sawing and grinding.

Defined as imports - exports.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

131

RARE EARTHS

[Data in metric tons of rare-earth-oxide (REO) equivalent content unless otherwise noted]

Domestic Production and Use: Rare earths were mined domestically in 2019. Bastnaesite (or bastnäsite), a rare-

earth fluorocarbonate mineral, was mined as a primary product at a mine in Mountain Pass, CA, which was restarted

in the first quarter of 2018 after being put on care-and-maintenance status in the fourth quarter of 2015. Monazite, a

phosphate mineral, was produced as a separated concentrate or included as an accessory mineral in heavy-mineral

concentrates. The estimated value of rare-earth compounds and metals imported by the United States in 2019 was

$170 million, an increase from $160 million in 2018. The estimated distribution of rare earths by end use was as

follows: catalysts, 75%; metallurgical applications and alloys, 5%; ceramics and glass, 5%; polishing, 5%; and other,

10%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, bastnaesite concentrates

5,900 — — 18,000 26,000

Imports:

Compounds 9,160 11,500 11,000 10,800 14,000

Metals:

Ferrocerium, alloys 356 268 309 301 310

Rare-earth metals, scandium, and yttrium 385 404 524 527 590

Exports:

Ores and compounds 4,980 590 1,740 16,800 26,000

Metals:

Ferrocerium, alloys 1,220 943 982 1,210 1,400

Rare-earth metals, scandium, and yttrium 60 103 55 28 100

Consumption, apparent

9,550 10,500 9,060 11,600 13,000

Price, dollars per kilogram, average:

Cerium oxide, 99.5% minimum 3 2 2 2 2

Dysprosium oxide, 99.5% minimum

279 198 187 179 240

Europium oxide, 99.99% minimum 344 74 77 53 35

Lanthanum oxide, 99.5% minimum 3 2 2 2 2

Mischmetal, 65% cerium, 35% lanthanum 7 5 6 6 6

Neodymium oxide, 99.5% minimum 48 40 50 50 45

Terbium oxide, 99.99% minimum 564 415 501 455 510

Employment, mine and mill, annual average 351 — 24 190 220

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption:

Compounds and metals 38 100 100 100 100

Mineral concentrates XX XX XX E E

Recycling: Limited quantities of rare earths from batteries, permanent magnets, and fluorescent lamps are recycled.

Import Sources (2015–18): Rare-earth compounds and metals: China, 80%; Estonia, 6%; Japan and Malaysia, 3%

each; and other, 8%. Compounds and metals imported from Estonia, Japan, and Malaysia were derived from mineral

concentrates and chemical intermediates produced in Australia, China, and elsewhere.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Rare-earth metals, scandium, and yttrium,

whether or not intermixed or interalloyed 2805.30.0000 5.0% ad val.

Cerium compounds:

Oxides 2846.10.0010 5.5% ad val.

Other 2846.10.0050 5.5% ad val.

Other rare-earth compounds:

Lanthanum oxides 2846.90.2005 Free.

Other oxides 2846.90.2040 Free.

Lanthanum carbonates 2846.90.8070 3.7% ad val.

Other carbonates 2846.90.8075 3.7% ad val.

Other rare-earth compounds 2846.90.8090 3.7% ad val.

Ferrocerium and other pyrophoric alloys 3606.90.3000 5.9% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: Monazite, 22% on thorium content and 14% on rare-earth content (Domestic), 14% (Foreign);

bastnäsite and xenotime, 14% (Domestic and foreign).

132

Prepared by Joseph Gambogi [(703) 648–7718, [email protected]v]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

RARE EARTHS

Government Stockpile:

FY 2019 FY 2020

Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential

Material As of 9–30–19 Acquisitions Disposals Acquisitions Disposals

Cerium — — — 900 —

Dysprosium 0.2 0.5 — — —

Europium 20.9 35 — — —

Ferrodysprosium, gross weight 0.5 — — — —

Lanthanum, gross weight — — — 4,100 —

Rare earths — 416 — — —

Rare-earth-magnet feedstock — 100 — 100 —

Yttrium oxide 25 10 — — —

Events, Trends, and Issues: Global mine production was estimated to have increased to 210,000 tons of rare-earth-

oxide equivalent, an 11% increase compared with that of 2018. In the United States, domestic production of mineral

concentrates, all of which were exported, increased to 26,000 tons, a 44% increase compared with that of 2018.

China continued to dominate the global supply of rare earths. According to China’s Ministry of Industry and

Information Technology, the mine and separation production quotas for 2019 were 132,000 tons and 127,000 tons,

respectively.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Canada, Greenland, Tanzania, and South Africa were

previously included with “Other countries.”

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 18,000 26,000 1,400,000

Australia 21,000 21,000

3,300,000

Brazil 1,100 1,000 22,000,000

Burma (Myanmar) 19,000 22,000 NA

Burundi 630 600 NA

Canada — — 830,000

China

120,000

132,000 44,000,000

Greenland — — 1,500,000

India 2,900 3,000 6,900,000

Madagascar 2,000 2,000 NA

Russia 2,700 2,700 12,000,000

South Africa — — 790,000

Tanzania — — 890,000

Thailand 1,000 1,800 NA

Vietnam 920 900 22,000,000

Other countries 60 —

310,000

World total (rounded) 190,000 210,000 120,000,000

World Resources: Rare earths are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust, but minable concentrations are less

common than for most other ores. In North America, measured and indicated resources of rare earths were estimated

to include 2.7 million tons in the United States and more than 15 million tons in Canada.

Substitutes: Substitutes are available for many applications but generally are less effective.

Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. XX Not applicable. — Zero.

Data include lanthanides and yttrium but exclude most scandium. See also Scandium and Yttrium.

REO equivalent or content of various materials were estimated. Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Price range from Argus Media group – Argus Metals International.

Defined as imports – exports.

In 2015, domestic production of mineral concentrates was included with apparent consumption of compounds and metals. In 2018 and 2019, all

domestic production of mineral concentrates was exported, and all compounds and metals consumed were assumed to be imported material.

See Appendix B for definitions.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 1.9 million tons.

Production quota; does not include undocumented production.

133

RHENIUM

(Data in kilograms of rhenium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: During 2019, ores containing 8,400 kilograms of rhenium were mined at six

operations (four in Arizona and one each in Montana and Utah). Rhenium compounds are included in molybdenum

concentrates derived from porphyry copper deposits, and rhenium is recovered as a byproduct from roasting such

molybdenum concentrates. Rhenium recovery occurred in Arizona, Utah, and Pennsylvania. Rhenium-containing

products included ammonium perrhenate (APR), metal powder, and perrhenic acid. The major uses of rhenium were

in superalloys used in high-temperature turbine engine components and in petroleum-reforming catalysts,

representing an estimated 80% and 15%, respectively, of end uses. Bimetallic platinum-rhenium catalysts were used

in petroleum reforming for the production of high-octane hydrocarbons, which are used in the production of lead-free

gasoline. Rhenium improves the high-temperature (1,000 °C) strength properties of some nickel-base superalloys.

Rhenium alloys were used in crucibles, electrical contacts, electromagnets, electron tubes and targets, heating

elements, ionization gauges, mass spectrographs, metallic coatings, semiconductors, temperature controls,

thermocouples, vacuum tubes, and other applications. The value of rhenium consumed in 2019 was about $65 million

as measured by the value of imports of rhenium metal and APR.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production

7,900 8,440 8,200 8,220 8,400

Imports for consumption

31,800 31,900 34,500 39,400 39,000

Exports NA NA NA NA NA

Consumption, apparent

39,700 40,300 42,700 47,600 47,000

Price, average value, dollars per kilogram,

gross weight:

Metal pellets, 99.99% pure 2,670 2,030 1,550 1,470 1,300

Ammonium perrhenate 2,820 2,510 1,530 1,410 1,300

Employment, number Small Small Small Small Small

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 80 79 81 83 82

Recycling: Nickel-base superalloy scrap and scrapped turbine blades and vanes continued to be recycled

hydrometallurgically to produce rhenium metal for use in new superalloy melts. The scrapped parts were also

processed to generate engine revert—a high-quality, lower cost superalloy meltstock—by an increasing number of

companies, mainly in the United States, Canada, Estonia, France, Germany, Japan, Poland, and Russia. Rhenium-

containing catalysts were also recycled.

Import Sources (2015–18): Ammonium perrhenate: Kazakhstan, 29%; Canada, 20%; Germany, 14%; China, 8%;

and other, 29%. Rhenium metal powder: Chile, 83%; Germany, 7%; Belgium, 3%; Poland, 3%; and other, 4%. Total:

Chile, 62%; Germany, 8%; Kazakhstan, 8%; Canada, 7%; and other, 15%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Salts of peroxometallic acids, other,

ammonium perrhenate 2841.90.2000 3.1% ad val.

Rhenium (and other metals), waste and scrap 8112.92.0600 Free.

Rhenium, unwrought and powders 8112.92.5000 3% ad val.

Rhenium (and other metals), wrought 8112.99.9000 4% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Désirée E. Polyak [(703) 648–4909, dpo[email protected]]

134

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

RHENIUM

Events, Trends, and Issues: During 2019, the United States continued to rely on imports for much of its supply of

rhenium. Canada, Chile, Germany, and Kazakhstan supplied most of the imported rhenium. Rhenium imports for

consumption remained essentially unchanged from those in 2018. Primary rhenium production in the United States

increased slightly compared with that in 2018. Germany and the United States continued to be the leading secondary

rhenium producers. Secondary rhenium production also took place in Canada, Estonia, France, Japan, Poland, and

Russia. According to industry sources, approximately 20 to 25 tons of rhenium was recycled worldwide in 2019. For

the eighth year in a row, rhenium metal and catalytic-grade APR prices decreased. In 2019, catalytic-grade APR

prices averaged $1,300 per kilogram, an 8% decrease from the annual average price in 2018. Rhenium metal pellet

prices averaged $1,300 per kilogram in 2019, a 12% decrease from the annual average price in 2018.

Consumption of catalyst-grade APR by the petroleum industry was expected to remain at high levels. Demand for

rhenium in the aerospace industry, although more unpredictable, was also expected to remain at high levels. The

major aerospace companies, however, were expected to continue testing superalloys that contain one-half the

quantity of rhenium used in engine blades as currently designed, as well as testing rhenium-free alloys for other

engine components.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 8,220 8,400 400,000

Armenia 281 280 95,000

Canada — — 32,000

Chile

27,000 27,000 1,300,000

China 2,500 2,500 NA

Kazakhstan 1,000 1,000 190,000

Peru — — 45,000

Poland 9,090 9,300 NA

Russia NA NA 310,000

Uzbekistan 460 400 NA

World total (rounded) 48,600 49,000 2,400,000

World Resources: Most rhenium occurs with molybdenum in porphyry copper deposits. Identified U.S. resources are

estimated to be about 5 million kilograms, and the identified resources of the rest of the world are approximately

6 million kilograms. Rhenium also is associated with copper minerals in sedimentary deposits in Armenia,

Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, and Uzbekistan, where ore is processed for copper recovery and the rhenium-bearing

residues are recovered at copper smelters.

Substitutes: Substitutes for rhenium in platinum-rhenium catalysts are being evaluated continually. Iridium and tin

have achieved commercial success in one such application. Other metals being evaluated for catalytic use include

gallium, germanium, indium, selenium, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium. The use of these and other metals in

bimetallic catalysts might decrease rhenium’s share of the existing catalyst market; however, this would likely be

offset by rhenium-bearing catalysts being considered for use in several proposed gas-to-liquid projects. Materials that

can substitute for rhenium in various end uses are as follows: cobalt and tungsten for coatings on copper x-ray

targets, rhodium and rhodium-iridium for high-temperature thermocouples, tungsten and platinum-ruthenium for

coatings on electrical contacts, and tungsten and tantalum for electron emitters.

Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.

Based on 80% recovery of estimated rhenium contained in molybdenum disulfide concentrates. Secondary rhenium production is not included.

Does not include wrought forms or waste and scrap. The rhenium content of ammonium perrhenate is 69.42%.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Average price per kilogram of rhenium in pellets or catalytic-grade ammonium perrhenate. Source: Argus Media group–Argus Metals International.

Defined as imports – exports.

Estimated amount of rhenium recovered in association with copper and molybdenum production. Secondary rhenium production not included.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Estimated rhenium recovered from roaster residues from Belgium, Chile, Mexico, and Peru.

135

RUBIDIUM

(Data in metric tons of rubidium oxide unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, no rubidium was mined in the United States; however, occurrences are

known in Alaska, Arizona, Idaho, Maine, South Dakota, and Utah. Rubidium is also associated with some evaporate

mineral occurrences in other States. Rubidium is not a major constituent of any mineral. Rubidium concentrate is

produced as a byproduct of pollucite (cesium) and lepidolite (lithium) mining and is imported from other countries for

processing in the United States.

Applications for rubidium and its compounds include biomedical research, electronics, specialty glass, and

pyrotechnics. Specialty glasses are the leading market for rubidium; rubidium carbonate is used to reduce electrical

conductivity, which improves stability and durability in fiber optic telecommunications networks. Biomedical

applications include rubidium salts used in antishock agents and the treatment of epilepsy and thyroid disorder;

rubidium-82, a radioactive isotope used as a blood-flow tracer in positron emission tomographic imaging; and

rubidium chloride, used as an antidepressant. Rubidium atoms are used in academic research, including the

development of quantum-mechanics-based computing devices, a future application with potential for relatively high

consumption of rubidium. Quantum computing research uses ultracold rubidium atoms in a variety of applications.

Quantum computers, which have the ability to perform more complex computational tasks than traditional computers

by calculating in two quantum states simultaneously, were expected to be in prototype phase by 2025.

Rubidium’s photoemissive properties make it useful for electrical-signal generators in motion-sensor devices, night-

vision devices, photoelectric cells (solar panels), and photomultiplier tubes. Rubidium is used as an atomic

resonance-frequency-reference oscillator for telecommunications network synchronization, playing a vital role in

global positioning systems. Rubidium-rich feldspars are used in ceramic applications for spark plugs and electrical

insulators because of their high dielectric constant. Rubidium hydroxide is used in fireworks to oxidize mixtures of

other elements and produce violet hues. The U.S. military frequency standard, the United States Naval Observatory

(USNO) timescale, is based on 48 weighted atomic clocks, including 4 USNO rubidium fountain clocks.

Salient Statistics—United States: U.S. salient statistics, such as consumption, exports, and imports, are not

available. Some concentrate was imported to the United States for further processing. Industry information during the

past decade suggests a domestic consumption rate of approximately 2,000 kilograms per year. The United States

was 100% import reliant for rubidium minerals.

In 2019, one company offered 1-gram ampoules of 99.75%-grade rubidium (metal basis) for $87.80, a 4% increase

from $84.40 in 2018, and 100-gram ampoules of the same material for $1,592.00, a 3% increase from $1,546.00 in

2018. The price for 1-gram ampoules of 99.8% rubidium formate hydrate (metal basis) was $34.70.

In 2019, the prices for 10 grams of 99.8% (metal basis) rubidium acetate, rubidium bromide, rubidium carbonate,

rubidium chloride, and rubidium nitrate were $49.80, $65.80, $56.80, $59.80, and $46.40, respectively. The price for a

rubidium-plasma standard solution (10,000 micrograms per milliliter) was $52.10 for 50 milliliters and $85.00 for 100

milliliters, a 4% decrease and 5% increase, respectively, from those of 2018.

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): No reliable data have been available to determine the source of rubidium ore imported

by the United States since 1988. Previously, Canada was thought to be the primary supplier of rubidium ore.

Prepared by Candice C. Tuck [(703) 648–4912, [email protected]]

136

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

RUBIDIUM

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Alkali metals, other 2805.19.9000 5.5% ad val.

Chlorides, other 2827.39.9000 3.7% ad val.

Bromides, other 2827.59.5100 3.6% ad val.

Nitrates, other 2834.29.5100 3.5% ad val.

Sulfates, other 2833.29.5100 3.7% ad val.

Carbonates, other 2836.99.5000 3.7% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic rubidium occurrences will remain uneconomic unless market conditions

change, such as the development of new end uses or increased consumption for existing end uses, which in turn

could lead to increased prices. No known human health issues are associated with exposure to naturally occurring

rubidium, and its use has minimal environmental impact.

During 2019, projects that were primarily aimed at developing lithium resources were at various stages of

development, including eight subprojects at the King Col project in Australia, the Jubilee Lake lithium prospect in

Canada, the Soris lithium project in Namibia, and the Winnipeg River pegmatite field in Canada. The status of these

projects ranged from early feasibility studies to active exploration and drilling. No production has been reported at any

sites. The projects focused on pegmatites containing pollucite and spodumene, which primarily contain lithium,

tantalum, or both, but may also contain minor quantities of cesium and rubidium.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

There were no official sources for rubidium production data. Production is

known to take place periodically in Namibia and Zimbabwe, but production data are not available. Production of

pollucite ceased at the Bernic Lake operation in Manitoba, Canada, at the end of 2015. Rubidium is thought to be

mined in China, but information regarding reserves and production is unavailable. Lepidolite and pollucite, the

principal rubidium-containing minerals in global rubidium reserves, can contain up to 3.5% and 1.5% rubidium oxide,

respectively. Rubidium-bearing mineral resources are found in zoned pegmatites. Mineral resources exist globally,

but extraction and concentration are cost prohibitive. Reserves data for Canada were added based on industry

information.

Reserves

Canada 12,000

Namibia 50,000

Zimbabwe 30,000

Other countries 10,000

World total 100,000

World Resources: Significant rubidium-bearing pegmatite occurrences have been identified in the United States,

Afghanistan, Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Germany, Japan, Kazakhstan, Namibia, Peru, Russia, the United

Kingdom, and Zambia. Minor quantities of rubidium are reported in brines in northern Chile and China and in

evaporites in the United States (New Mexico and Utah), France, and Germany.

Substitutes: Rubidium and cesium can be used interchangeably in many applications because they have similar

physical properties and atomic radii. Cesium, however, is more electropositive than rubidium, making it a preferred

material for some applications.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

137

SALT

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Domestic production of salt was estimated to have increased slightly in 2019 to 42

million tons. The total value of salt sold or used was estimated to be about $2.3 billion. Twenty-six companies

operated 63 plants in 16 States. The top producing States were, in alphabetical order, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan,

New York, Ohio, Texas, and Utah. These seven States produced about 92% of the salt in the United States in 2019.

The estimated percentage of salt sold or used was, by type, rock salt, 41%; salt in brine, 41%; vacuum pan salt, 10%;

and solar salt, 8%.

Highway deicing accounted for about 43% of total salt consumed. The chemical industry accounted for about 37% of

total salt sales, with salt in brine accounting for 89% of the salt used for chemical feedstock. Chlorine and caustic

soda manufacturers were the main consumers within the chemical industry. The remaining markets for salt were, in

declining order of use, distributors, 9%; food processing, 4%; agricultural, 3%, general industrial, 2%; and primary

water treatment, 1%. The remaining 1% was other uses combined with exports.

Salient Statistics—United States:

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production 45,100 41,700 39,600

41,000 42,000

Sold or used by producers 42,800 39,900 38,200

40,000 41,000

Imports for consumption 21,600 12,100 12,600 17,900 17,000

Exports 830 729 1,120 986 730

Consumption:

Apparent

63,600 51,300 49,700

57,000 57,000

Reported 52,300 47,800 45,500

48,000 49,000

Price, average value of bulk, pellets and packaged

salt, dollars per ton, f.o.b. mine and plant:

Vacuum and open pan salt 188.87 197.78 211.71

220.00 220.00

Solar salt 102.04 99.69 115.88

120.00 120.00

Rock salt 56.32 56.75 60.41

62.00 62.00

Salt in brine 10.27 8.68 9.49

10.00 10.00

Employment, mine and plant, number

4,200 4,000 4,100 4,100 4,100

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 33 22 23 30 29

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Chile, 36%; Canada, 25%; Mexico, 12%; Egypt, 6%; and other, 21%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Salt (sodium chloride) 2501.00.0000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 10% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The winter was slightly colder than average in 2018–19 for the second consecutive

year. The number of winter weather events was greater than the last few years in many parts of the United States,

including an increase in episodes of freeing rain and sleet, requiring more salt for highway deicing. Rock salt

production and imports in 2019 remained at about the same level as that of 2018 because demand from many local

and State transportation departments remained relatively high. Most local and State governments in regions that

experience cold winters reportedly had depleted stockpiles and needed to replenish supplies of rock salt for the winter

of 2019–20.

Prepared by Wallace P. Bolen [(703) 648–7727, wbolen@usgs.gov]

138

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SALT

For the winter of 2019–20, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted a neutral weather pattern

without El Niño or La Niña affects: other weather patterns were expected to have a greater influence. Forecasts

include warmer than average temperatures for the northeastern, northwestern, and southern areas of the United

States, and the northern plains and Midwest are expected to have average temperatures. Areas from the mid-Atlantic

to the northern Rocky Mountains are predicted to have a wetter than average winter, but much of New England and

most of the South are forecast to have average precipitation. The early part of the season was noticeably cooler and

wetter than normal, and consumers of rock salt had already begun to use stockpiles of salt and considered increasing

salt purchases for the remainder of the winter season.

Demand for salt brine used in the chloralkali industry was expected to increase as demand for caustic soda increased

globally, especially in Asia. Exports from Australia and especially India increased to meet the increasing demand for

caustic soda in China.

World Production and Reserves:

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States

41,000 42,000 Large. Economic and subeconomic

Australia 12,000 13,000 deposits of salt are substantial in

Austria 4,900 4,900 principal salt-producing countries.

Brazil 7,500 7,600 The oceans contain a virtually

Canada 12,000 12,000 inexhaustible supply of salt.

Chile 8,000 9,000

China 58,000 60,000

France 5,700 5,700

Germany 14,000 14,000

India 29,000 30,000

Italy 4,100 4,100

Mexico 9,000 9,000

Netherlands 7,000 7,000

Pakistan 4,400 4,500

Poland 4,400 4,500

Russia 7,000 7,000

Spain 4,200 4,300

Turkey 6,500 6,600

United Kingdom 4,100 4,100

Other countries 43,000 44,000

World total (rounded) 286,000 293,000

World Resources: World continental resources of salt are vast, and the salt content in the oceans is nearly unlimited.

Domestic resources of rock salt and salt from brine are primarily in Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio,

and Texas. Saline lakes and solar evaporation salt facilities are in Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico,

Oklahoma, and Utah. Almost every country in the world has salt deposits or solar evaporation operations of various

sizes.

Substitutes: No economic substitutes or alternatives for salt exist in most applications. Calcium chloride and calcium

magnesium acetate, hydrochloric acid, and potassium chloride can be substituted for salt in deicing, certain chemical

processes, and food flavoring, but at a higher cost.

Estimated.

Excludes production from Puerto Rico.

Defined as sold or used by producers + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

139

SAND AND GRAVEL (CONSTRUCTION)

(Data in million metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, 970 million tons of construction sand and gravel valued at $9.0 billion was

produced by an estimated 3,870 companies operating 6,830 pits and 342 sales and distribution yards in 50 States.

Leading producing States were Texas, California, Arizona, Minnesota, Michigan, Washington, Ohio, New York, Utah,

and Colorado, in order of decreasing tonnage, which together accounted for about 55% of total output. It is estimated

that about 46% of construction sand and gravel was used as concrete aggregates; 21%, for road base and coverings

and road stabilization; 13%, as construction fill; 12%, as asphaltic concrete aggregates and other bituminous

mixtures; 13%, as construction fill; and 4%, for other miscellaneous uses. The remaining 4% was used for concrete

products, filtration, golf course maintenance, plaster and gunite sands, railroad ballast, road stabilization, roofing

granules, and snow and ice control.

The estimated output of construction sand and gravel in the United States shipped for consumption in the first 9

months of 2019 was 727 million tons, an increase of 3% compared with that of the same period of 2018. Third quarter

shipments for consumption increased by 5% compared with those of the same period of 2018. Additional production

information by quarter for each State, geographic region, and the United States is published by the U.S. Geological

Survey (USGS) in its quarterly Mineral Industry Surveys for Crushed Stone and Sand and Gravel.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production 880 887 880 937 970

Imports for consumption 4 3 7 6 5

Exports (

) (

)

Consumption, apparent

884 891 886 943 980

Price, average value, dollars per metric ton 8.28 8.41 8.83 9.14 9.29

Employment, mine and mill, number

34,800 35,300 36,500 38,600 37,800

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption (

) (

) 1 1 1

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 94%; Mexico, 4%; China, 1%; and Norway, 1%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Sand, other 2505.90.0000 Free.

Pebbles and gravel 2517.10.0015 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Common varieties, 5% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Jason Christopher Willett [(703) 648–6473, [email protected]]

140

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SAND AND GRAVEL (CONSTRUCTION)

Events, Trends, and Issues: Construction sand and gravel production was about 970 million tons in 2019, an

increase of 4% compared with that of 2018. Apparent consumption also increased by 4% to 980 million tons. Demand

for construction sand and gravel increased in 2019 because of continued growth in the private and public construction

markets. Commercial and heavy-industrial construction activity, infrastructure funding, new single-family housing unit

starts, and weather affect growth in sand and gravel production and consumption. Long-term increases in

construction aggregates demand will be influenced by activity in the public and private construction sectors, as well as

by construction work related to security measures being implemented around the Nation. The underlying factors that

would support a rise in prices of construction sand and gravel are expected to be present in 2020, especially in and

near metropolitan areas.

The construction sand and gravel industry remained concerned with environmental, health, permitting, safety, and

zoning regulations. Movement of sand and gravel operations away from densely populated regions was expected to

continue where regulations and local sentiment discouraged them. Resultant regional shortages of construction sand

and gravel would likely result in higher-than-average price increases in industrialized and urban areas.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 937 970 Reserves are controlled largely by land

Other countries

NA NA use and (or) environmental concerns.

World total NA NA

World Resources: Sand and gravel resources are plentiful throughout the world. However, because of

environmental regulations, geographic distribution, and quality requirements for some uses, sand and gravel

extraction is uneconomic in some cases. The most important commercial sources of sand and gravel have been

glacial deposits, river channels, and river flood plains. Use of offshore deposits in the United States is mostly

restricted to beach erosion control and replenishment. Other countries routinely mine offshore deposits of aggregates

for onshore construction projects.

Substitutes: Crushed stone, the other major construction aggregate, is often substituted for natural sand and gravel,

especially in more densely populated areas of the Eastern United States. Crushed stone remains the dominant choice

for construction aggregate use. Increasingly, recycled asphalt and portland cement concretes are being substituted

for virgin aggregate, although the percentage of total aggregate supplied by recycled materials remained very small in

2019.

Estimated. NA Not available.

See also Sand and Gravel (Industrial) and Stone (Crushed).

Less than ½ unit.

Defined as production + imports – exports.

Including office staff. Source: Mine Safety and Health Administration.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

No reliable production information is available for most countries owing to the wide variety of ways in which countries report their sand and gravel

production. Some countries do not report production for this mineral commodity. Production information for some countries is available in the USGS

Minerals Yearbook, Volume III, Area Reports: International.

141

SAND AND GRAVEL (INDUSTRIAL)

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, industrial sand and gravel valued at about $5.7 billion was produced by

about 191 companies from 308 operations in 35 States. The value of production of industrial sand and gravel in 2019

decreased by 17% compared with that of the previous year, owing primarily to reduced demand for hydraulic-

fracturing sand. The likely cause was decreased activity in the oil and gas sector during the year. Leading producing

States were Wisconsin, Texas, Illinois, Missouri, Minnesota, Oklahoma, Mississippi, North Carolina, Iowa, and

Louisiana, in descending order of tonnage produced. Combined production from these States accounted for 85% of

the domestic total. About 73% of the U.S. tonnage was used as hydraulic-fracturing sand and well-packing and

cementing sand; as glassmaking sand and other whole-grain silica, 7% each; as foundry sand, 3%; as ceramics,

other ground silica, and whole-grain fillers for building products, 2% each; and recreational sand, 1%. Abrasives,

chemicals, fillers, filtration sand, metallurgical flux, roofing granules, silica gravel, and traction sand, combined,

accounted for the remaining 3% of industrial sand and gravel end uses.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Sold or used 102,000 79,400 103,000 121,000 110,000

Imports for consumption 289 281 366 392 390

Exports 3,910 2,780 4,680 6,560 5,900

Consumption, apparent

98,400 76,900 98,700 115,000 100,000

Price, average value, dollars per ton 47.30 35.40 52.00 56.40 50.40

Employment, quarry and mill, number

3,500 3,500 4,000 4,000 4,000

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption E E E E E

Recycling: Some foundry sand is recycled, and recycled cullet (pieces of glass) represents a significant proportion of

reused silica. About 34% of glass containers are recycled.

Import Sources (2015–18): Canada, 86%; Taiwan, 4%; Vietnam, 4%; and other, 6%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Sand containing 95% or more silica

and not more than 0.6% iron oxide 2505.10.1000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: Industrial sand or pebbles, 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. apparent consumption of industrial sand and gravel was estimated to be 100

million tons in 2019, a 13% decrease from that of the previous year. Decreased oil and gas drilling in North America

and oil well completion activity triggered a corresponding decrease in the production of hydraulic-fracturing sand in

2019 compared with that of the previous year. However, in any given year, more efficient hydraulic-fracturing

techniques, which require more silica sand use per well (mostly for secondary recovery at mature wells) along with

lower unit cost compared with other proppants, tends to maintain demand for hydraulic-fracturing sand. Imports of

industrial sand and gravel in 2019 were about 390,000 tons—nearly the same as those of 2018. Imports of silica are

generally of two types—small shipments of very high-purity silica or a few large shipments of lower grade silica

shipped only under special circumstances (for example, very low freight rates). The United States remains a net

exporter of industrial sand and gravel; U.S. exports of industrial sand and gravel decreased by about 10% in 2019

compared with those of 2018.

The United States was the world’s leading producer and consumer of industrial sand and gravel based on estimated

world production figures. It is difficult to collect definitive data on silica sand and gravel production in most nations

because of the wide range of terminology and specifications found among different countries. The United States

remained a major exporter of silica sand and gravel, shipping it to almost every region of the world. The high level of

exports was attributed to the high quality and advanced processing techniques used in the United States for many

grades of silica sand and gravel, meeting virtually every specification.

142

Prepared by Thomas P. Dolley [(703) 648–7710, tdolley@usgs.gov]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SAND AND GRAVEL (INDUSTRIAL)

The industrial sand and gravel industry continued to be concerned with safety and health regulations and

environmental restrictions in 2019, especially those concerning crystalline silica exposure. Beginning in 2016, the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) finalized new regulations to further restrict exposure to

crystalline silica at quarry sites and in other industries that use materials containing it. Phased implementation of the

new regulations was scheduled to take effect through 2021, affecting various industries that use materials containing

silica. Most provisions of the new regulations became enforceable on June 23, 2018, for general industry and

maritime operations. On August 14, 2019, OSHA requested comment and information to enable the agency to

consider new developments and enhanced control methods for equipment that generates exposures to silica.

Local shortages of industrial sand and gravel were expected to continue to increase owing to land development

priorities, local zoning regulations, and logistical issues, including ongoing development and permitting of operations

producing hydraulic-fracturing sand. Natural gas and petroleum operations that use hydraulic fracturing may also

undergo increased scrutiny. These factors may result in future sand and gravel operations being located farther from

high-population centers.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 121,000 110,000 Large. Industrial sand and gravel deposits

Australia 3,000 3,000 are widespread.

Bulgaria 7,250 7,300

Canada 2,500 2,500

France 9,310 9,300

Germany 7,500 7,500

India 11,900 12,000

Indonesia 5,540 5,500

Italy 14,000 14,000

Japan 2,520 2,500

Korea, Republic of 4,300 4,500

Malaysia 10,000 10,000

Mexico 2,360 2,400

Netherlands 54,000 54,000

New Zealand 2,320 2,300

Poland 5,120 5,000

South Africa 2,400 2,400

Spain 35,500 36,000

Turkey 13,500 14,000

United Kingdom 4,000 4,000

Other countries 17,200 21,300

World total (rounded) 335,000 330,000

World Resources: Sand and gravel resources of the world are large. However, because of their geographic

distribution, environmental restrictions, and quality requirements for some uses, extraction of these resources is

sometimes uneconomic. Quartz-rich sand and sandstone, the main sources of industrial silica sand, occur throughout

the world.

Substitutes: Alternative materials that can be used for glassmaking and for foundry and molding sands are chromite,

olivine, staurolite, and zircon sands. Although costlier and mostly used in deeper wells, alternative materials that can

be used as proppants are sintered bauxite and kaolin-based ceramic proppants.

Estimated. E Net exporter.

See also Sand and Gravel (Construction).

Defined as production (sold or used) + imports – exports.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

143

SCANDIUM

(Data in metric tons of scandium oxide equivalent unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Domestically, scandium was neither mined nor recovered from process streams or

mine tailings in 2019. Previously, scandium was produced domestically primarily from the scandium-yttrium silicate

mineral thortveitite and from byproduct leach solutions from uranium operations. Limited capacity to produce ingot

and distilled scandium metal existed at facilities in Ames, IA; Tolleson, AZ; and Urbana, IL. The principal source for

scandium metal and scandium compounds was imports from China. The principal uses for scandium in 2019 were in

aluminum-scandium alloys and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Other uses for scandium included ceramics,

electronics, lasers, lighting, and radioactive isotopes.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018

2019

Price, yearend, dollars:

Compounds, per gram:

Acetate, 99.9% purity, 5-gram sample size

43.00 44.00 44.00 44.00 45.00

Chloride, 99.9% purity, 5-gram sample size

123.00 126.00 124.00 125.00 129.00

Fluoride, 99.9% purity, 1-to-5-gram sample size

263.00

270.00

277.00

206.00

209.00

Iodide, 99.999% purity, 5-gram sample size

187.00 149.00 183.00 165.00 157.00

Oxide, 99.99% purity, 5-kilogram lot size

5.10 4.60 4.60 4.60 3.90

Metal:

Scandium, distilled dendritic, per gram,

2-gram sample size

221.00 228.00 226.00 226.00 233.00

Scandium, ingot, per gram,

5-gram sample size

134.00 107.00 132.00 132.00 134.00

Scandium-aluminum alloy, per kilogram,

metric-ton lot size

220.00 340.00 350.00 360.00 300.00

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100

Recycling: None.

Import Sources (2015–18): Although no definitive data exist listing import sources, imported material is mostly from

Europe, China, Japan, and Russia.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Rare-earth metals, unspecified,

not intermixed or interalloyed 2805.30.0050 5.0% ad val.

Compounds of rare-earth metals:

Mixtures of oxides of yttrium or scandium as the

predominant metal 2846.90.2015 Free.

Mixtures of chlorides of yttrium or scandium as the

predominant metal 2846.90.2082 Free.

Mixtures of other rare-earth carbonates,

including scandium 2846.90.8075 3.7% ad val.

Mixtures of other rare-earth compounds,

including scandium 2846.90.8090 3.7% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The global supply and consumption of scandium was estimated to be about 15 tons to

20 tons per year. Scandium was recovered from titanium, zirconium, cobalt, and nickel process streams. China, the

Philippines, and Russia were the leading producers. Prices quoted for scandium oxide in the United States decreased

compared with those in 2018. Owing in part to low capacity utilization, China’s ex-works prices for scandium oxide

were significantly less than United States quoted prices. Although global exploration and development projects

continued in anticipation of increased demand, the global scandium market remained small relative to most other

metals.

Prepared by Joseph Gambogi [(703) 648–7718, jgambogi@usgs.gov]

144

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SCANDIUM

In the United States, a feasibility study was completed on the polymetallic Elk Creek project in Nebraska. Probable

reserves were estimated to be 36 million tons containing 65.7 parts per million (2,400 tons) of scandium. Plans for the

project included downstream production of ferroniobium, titanium dioxide, and scandium oxide. The Bokan project in

Alaska and the Round Top project in Texas also included scandium recovery in their process plans. In addition,

Federal and State agencies were funding the development of methods to separate scandium from coal and coal

byproducts.

Globally, several projects were under development while seeking permitting, project financing, and offtake

agreements. Reserves at the Nyngan project in New South Wales, Australia, were estimated to be 1.4 million tons

containing about 590 tons of scandium. The developer expected to begin commissioning 38.5 tons per year of

scandium oxide production capacity in 2021. A definitive feasibility study on the polymetallic Owendale Project in New

South Wales was completed in 2018 with the potential to produce 20 tons per year of scandium oxide from reserves

of 4.0 million tons containing 570 parts per million scandium (3,500 tons of scandium oxide equivalent). Engineering

and design plans for the polymetallic Sunrise Project in New South Wales, continued to advance following an offtake

agreement for nickel and cobalt in 2019 and the completion of a definitive feasibility study in 2018. Proven and

probable reserves for the Sunrise Project were 147 million tons containing 53 parts per million (7,800 t) scandium. In

Queensland, following the completion of a bankable feasibility study on the polymetallic SCONI project in 2018,

reserves were updated to 57 million tons containing 35 parts per million (2,000 tons) scandium.

In the Philippines, a plant designed to recover 7.5 tons per year of scandium oxide equivalent began commercial

production at the Taganito high-pressure acid-leach nickel operation. An intermediate scandium concentrate was

exported to Japan.

In Russia, feasibility studies for making scandium oxide as a byproduct of alumina refining in the Ural Mountains were

ongoing. The pilot plant was reported to have produced scandium oxide with purity greater than 99%. Based on pilot

test results, plans were in place for a 3-ton-per-year scandium oxide plant. In Dalur, Kurgan region, development of

scandium recovery as a byproduct of uranium production continued, and production capacity included scandium

oxide (570 kilograms per year) and aluminum-scandium alloy (24.5 tons per year).

In the European Union, recovery methods were being developed to produce scandium compounds and aluminum-

scandium alloys from byproducts of aluminum and titanium mining and processing. Globally, several projects were

underway to commercialize new aluminum-scandium alloys for casting and additive manufacturing.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

No scandium was recovered from mining operations in the United States.

As a result of its low concentration, scandium is produced exclusively as a byproduct during processing of various

ores or recovered from previously processed tailings or residues. In recent years, scandium was produced as

byproduct material in China (iron ore, rare earths, titanium, and zirconium), Kazakhstan (uranium), Philippines

(nickel), Russia (apatite and uranium), and Ukraine (uranium). Foreign mine production data for 2019 were not

available.

World Resources: Resources of scandium are abundant. Scandium’s crustal abundance is greater than that of lead.

Scandium lacks affinity for the common ore-forming anions; therefore, it is widely dispersed in the lithosphere and

forms solid solutions with low concentrations in more than 100 minerals. Scandium resources have been identified in

Australia, Canada, China, Kazakhstan, Madagascar, Norway, the Philippines, Russia, Ukraine, and the United States.

Substitutes: Titanium and aluminum high-strength alloys, as well as carbon-fiber materials, may substitute in high-

performance scandium-alloy applications. Light-emitting diodes displace mercury-vapor high-intensity lights in some

industrial and residential applications. In some applications that rely on scandium’s unique properties, substitution is

not possible.

Estimated.

See also Rare Earths. Scandium is one of the 17 rare-earth elements.

Prices from Alfa Aesar, a Johnson Matthey company.

Prices from Sigma-Aldrich, a part of Millipore Sigma.

Prices from Stanford Materials Corp.

Defined as imports – exports. Quantitative data are not available.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

145

SELENIUM

(Data in metric tons of selenium content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, primary selenium was refined from anode slimes recovered from the

electrolytic refining of copper at one facility in Texas. Two other electrolytic copper refineries, operating in Arizona and

Utah, did not recover selenium domestically. U.S. selenium production and consumption data were withheld to avoid

disclosing company proprietary data.

Estimates for world consumption are as follows: metallurgy (including manganese production), 40%; glass

manufacturing, 25%; agriculture, 10%; chemicals and pigments, 10%; electronics, 10%; and other uses, 5%.

Selenium is used in blasting caps to control delays; in catalysts to enhance selective oxidation; in copper, lead, and

steel alloys to improve machinability; in the electrolytic production of manganese to increase yields; in glass

manufacturing to decolorize the green tint caused by iron impurities in container glass and other soda-lime silica

glass; in gun bluing to improve cosmetic appearance and provide corrosion resistance; in plating solutions to improve

appearance and durability; in rubber compounding chemicals to act as a vulcanizing agent; and in thin-film

photovoltaic copper-indium-gallium-diselenide (CIGS) solar cells.

Selenium is an essential micronutrient and is used as a human dietary supplement, a dietary supplement for

livestock, and as a fertilizer additive to enrich selenium-poor soils. Selenium is also used as an active ingredient in

antidandruff shampoos.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production, refinery W W W W W

Imports for consumption:

Selenium metal 444 411 450 445 500

Selenium dioxide 14 21 19 12 1

Exports,

metal 468 150 242 158 260

Consumption, apparent,

metal W W W W W

Price, average, dollars per pound

22.09 23.69 10.78 18.97 20.00

Stocks, producer, refined, yearend W W W W W

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption, metal E E E <25 <25

Recycling: Domestic production of secondary selenium was estimated to be very small because most scrap from

older plain paper photocopiers and electronic materials was exported for recovery of the contained selenium.

Import Sources (2015–18): China, 22%; the Philippines, 17%; Mexico, 13%; Germany, 11%; and other, 37%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Selenium metal 2804.90.0000 Free.

Selenium dioxide 2811.29.2000 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The supply of selenium is directly affected by the supply of the materials from which it

is a byproduct—copper and, to a lesser extent, nickel—and it is directly affected by the number of facilities that

recover selenium. The estimated annual average price for selenium was $20.00 per pound in 2019, about 5% more

than the annual average price in 2018. Average monthly prices have remained steady since November 2018.

146

Prepared by C. Schuyler Anderson [(703) 648–4985, csande[email protected]]

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SELENIUM

Electrolytic manganese production was the main metallurgical end use for selenium in China, where selenium dioxide

was used in the electrolytic process to increase current efficiency and the metal deposition rate. Selenium

consumption in China was thought to have increased in recent years; 49 electrolytic manganese producers were

reported to have been operating and consuming selenium in 2018 (latest information available), down from 51

reported in 2017.

World Refinery Production and Reserves:

Refinery production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States W W 10,000

Belgium 200 200 —

Canada 61 60 6,000

China 930 930 26,000

Finland 100 100 —

Germany 300 300 —

Japan 768 770 —

Peru 45 45 13,000

Poland 76 70 3,000

Russia 150 150 20,000

Sweden 90 50 —

Turkey 50 50 —

Other countries

44 40 21,000

World total (rounded)

2,810

2,800 99,000

World Resources: Reserves for selenium are based on identified copper deposits and average selenium content.

Coal generally contains between 0.5 and 12 parts per million of selenium, or about 80 to 90 times the average for

copper deposits. The recovery of selenium from coal fly ash, although technically feasible, does not appear likely to

be economical in the foreseeable future.

Substitutes: Silicon is the major substitute for selenium in low- and medium-voltage rectifiers. Organic pigments

have been developed as substitutes for cadmium sulfoselenide pigments. Other substitutes include cerium oxide as

either a colorant or decolorant in glass; tellurium in pigments and rubber; bismuth, lead, and tellurium in free-

machining alloys; and bismuth and tellurium in lead-free brasses. Sulfur dioxide can be used as a replacement for

selenium dioxide in the production of electrolytic manganese metal, but it is not as energy efficient.

The selenium-tellurium photoreceptors used in some plain paper copiers and laser printers have been replaced by

organic photoreceptors in newer machines. Amorphous silicon and cadmium telluride are the two principal

competitors with CIGS in thin-film photovoltaic solar cells.

Estimated. E Net exporter. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.

There was no exclusive Schedule B number for selenium dioxide exports.

Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

U.S. spot market price for selenium metal powder, minimum 99.5% purity, in 5-ton lots. Source: Platts Metals Week.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes; export data incomplete for common forms of selenium, and may be

exported under unexpected or misidentified forms, such as copper slimes, copper selenide, or zinc selenide.

Insofar as possible, data relate to refinery output only; thus, countries that produced selenium contained in blister copper, copper concentrates,

copper ores, and (or) refinery residues, but did not recover refined selenium from these materials indigenously, were excluded to avoid double

counting.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Excludes U.S. production. Australia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Mexico, the Philippines, and Uzbekistan are known to produce refined selenium, but output

was not reported, and information was inadequate to make reliable production estimates.

147

SILICON

(Data in thousand metric tons of silicon content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Six companies produced silicon materials at seven plants, all east of the Mississippi

River. Most ferrosilicon was consumed in the ferrous foundry and steel industries, predominantly in the Eastern

United States, and was sourced primarily from domestic quartzite (silica). The main consumers of silicon metal were

producers of aluminum alloys and the chemical industry. The semiconductor and solar energy industries, which

manufacture chips for computers and photovoltaic cells from high-purity silicon, respectively, also consumed silicon

metal.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016

2017 2018 2019

Production:

Ferrosilicon and silicon metal

1, 2

411 384 415 430 320

Imports for consumption:

Ferrosilicon, all grades

162 155 147 140 140

Silicon metal 140 122 136 116 130

Exports:

Ferrosilicon, all grades

9 7 11 12 10

Silicon metal 37 60 71 45 40

Consumption, apparent:

Ferrosilicon, all grades

W W W W W

Silicon metal

W W W W W

Total 661 601 616 637 560

Price, average, cents per pound of silicon:

Ferrosilicon, 50% Si

101 83 94 104 100

Ferrosilicon, 75% Si

88 71 87 108 93

Silicon metal

2, 5

127 91 117 134 110

Stocks, producer, yearend:

Ferrosilicon and metal

1, 2

33 26 26 19 20

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption:

Ferrosilicon, all grades

>50 >50 <50 <50 <50

Silicon metal

<50 <50 <50 <50 <50

Total 38 36 33 32 41

Recycling: Insignificant.

Import Sources (2015–18): Ferrosilicon: Russia, 38%; Canada, 13%; China, 13%; Brazil, 8%; and other, 28%.

Silicon metal: Brazil, 28%; Canada, 18%; and other, 54%. Total: Russia, 20%; Brazil, 17%; Canada, 15%; and other,

48%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Silicon, more than 99.99% Si 2804.61.0000 Free.

Silicon, 99.00%−99.99% Si 2804.69.1000 5.3% ad val.

Silicon, other 2804.69.5000 5.5% ad val.

Ferrosilicon, 55%−80% Si:

More than 3% Ca 7202.21.1000 1.1% ad val.

Other 7202.21.5000 1.5% ad val.

Ferrosilicon, 80%−90% Si 7202.21.7500 1.9% ad val.

Ferrosilicon, more than 90% Si 7202.21.9000 5.8% ad val.

Ferrosilicon, other:

More than 2% Mg 7202.29.0010 Free.

Other 7202.29.0050 Free.

Prepared by Emily K. Schnebele [(703) 648–4945, eschnebel[email protected]]

148

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SILICON

Depletion Allowance: Quartzite, 14% (Domestic and foreign); gravel, 5% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Combined domestic ferrosilicon and silicon metal production in 2019, expressed in

terms of contained silicon, decreased from that of 2018. One producer idled a silicon metal production facility at the

end of 2018 to consolidate operations and respond to reduced demand. Domestic production during the first 9 months

of 2019 was about 19% less, on a gross-weight basis, than that during the same period in 2018. By September 2019,

average U.S. ferrosilicon spot market prices had decreased slightly for 50%-grade ferrosilicon and by 14% for 75%-

grade ferrosilicon compared with the annual average spot price in 2018. The average silicon metal spot market price

had decreased by 18% compared with the annual average spot price in 2018. Oversupply in the market combined

with decreased demand from ferrosilicon and silicon metal consumers contributed to declining prices in 2019.

Excluding the United States, ferrosilicon accounted for about 55% of world silicon production on a silicon-content

basis in 2019. Global production for 2018 was revised from the previous year’s publication owing to increases in the

estimates for production from China. The leading countries for ferrosilicon production were, in descending order and

on a contained-weight basis, China, Russia, and Norway. For silicon metal, the leading producers were China,

Norway, and Brazil. China accounted for approximately 64% of total global estimated production of silicon materials in

2019.

World Production and Reserves:

Production

e, 7

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 430 320 The reserves in most major producing

Bhutan

90 90 countries are ample in relation to

Brazil 220 210 demand. Quantitative estimates are

Canada 57 60 not available.

China 4,800 4,500

France 140 140

Iceland 83 80

India

57 60

Malaysia

140 150

Norway 370 370

Poland

43 36

Russia 600 600

Spain 69 70

Ukraine

49 50

Other countries 290 290

World total (rounded) 7,400 7,000

World Resources: World and domestic resources for making silicon metal and alloys are abundant and, in most

producing countries, adequate to supply world requirements for many decades. The source of the silicon is silica in

various natural forms, such as quartzite.

Substitutes: Aluminum, silicon carbide, and silicomanganese can be substituted for ferrosilicon in some applications.

Gallium arsenide and germanium are the principal substitutes for silicon in semiconductor and infrared applications.

Estimated. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.

Ferrosilicon grades include the two standard grades of ferrosilicon⎯50% and 75% silicon⎯plus miscellaneous silicon alloys.

Metallurgical-grade silicon metal.

Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

CRU Group transaction prices based on weekly averages.

S&P Global Platts mean import prices based on monthly averages.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Production quantities are the silicon content of combined totals for ferrosilicon and silicon metal, except as noted.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Silicon content of ferrosilicon only.

149

SILVER

(Data in metric tons

of silver content unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, U.S. mines produced approximately 980 tons of silver with an estimated

value of $510 million. Silver was produced at 4 silver mines and as a byproduct or coproduct from 33 domestic base-

and precious-metal operations. Alaska continued as the country’s leading silver-producing State, followed by Nevada.

There were 24 U.S. refiners that reported production of commercial-grade silver with an estimated total output of

2,500 tons from domestic and foreign ores and concentrates and from new and old scrap. The physical properties of

silver include high ductility, electrical conductivity, malleability, and reflectivity. In 2019, the estimated domestic uses

for silver were electrical and electronics, 30%; jewelry and silverware, 26%; coins and medals, 12%; photography,

3%; and other, 29%. Other applications for silver include use in antimicrobial bandages, clothing, pharmaceuticals,

and plastics; batteries; bearings; brazing and soldering; catalytic converters in automobiles; electroplating; inks;

mirrors; photovoltaic solar cells; water purification; and wood treatment. Mercury and silver, the main components of

dental amalgam, are biocides, and their use in amalgam inhibits recurrent decay.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production:

Mine 1,090 1,150 1,030 934 980

Refinery:

Primary 1,530 1,530 1,420 1,420 1,400

Secondary (new and old scrap) 1,100 1,010 1,030 1,050 1,100

Imports for consumption

5,930 6,160 5,040 4,840 4,700

Exports

818 289 157 602 300

Consumption, apparent

6,590 8,040 7,320 6,090 6,500

Price, average,

dollars per troy ounce

15.72 17.20 17.07 15.75 16.20

Stocks, yearend:

Industry 869 866 490 632 630

Treasury

498 498 498 498 498

New York Commodities Exchange—COMEX 5,000 5,710 7,570 9,140 9,800

Employment, mine and mill,

number

1,210 1,190 1,010 961 970

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption 67 73 72 67 68

Recycling: In 2019, approximately 1,100 tons of silver was recovered from new and old scrap, about 17% of

apparent consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18):

Mexico, 48%; Canada, 29%; Peru, 5%; Poland, 4%; and other, 14%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Silver ores and concentrates, silver content 2616.10.0040 0.8 ¢/kg on lead content.

Bullion, silver content 7106.91.1010 Free.

Dore, silver content 7106.91.1020 Free.

Depletion Allowance: 15% (Domestic), 14% (Foreign).

Government Stockpile: The U.S. Department of the Treasury maintains stocks of silver (see salient statistics

above).

Events, Trends, and Issues: The estimated average silver price in 2019 was $16.20 per troy ounce, 3% higher than

the average price in 2018. The price began the year at $15.46 per troy ounce, then decreased to a low of $14.37 per

troy ounce on May 28. The price increased to a high of $19.40 per troy ounce on September 4 before trending

downward through November.

Prepared by Micheal W. George [Contact C. Schuyler Anderson, (703) 648–4985, csanderson@usgs.gov]

150

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SILVER

In 2019, global consumption of silver was estimated to have increased slightly from that of 2018. Coin and bar

consumption increased for the third year in a row. Consumption for jewelry and silverware was also estimated to have

increased in 2019. Photography and other industrial uses decreased in 2019. Overall, production in the global silver

market was estimated to have been greater than consumption in 2019 resulting in an excess supply of silver;

however, investor purchases were expected to more than offset the surplus and support the higher silver price.

World silver mine production increased slightly in 2019 to an estimated 27,000 tons, principally as a result of

increased production from mines in Argentina, Australia, Mexico, and Poland. Some silver-producing mines in Chile

and Peru experienced reductions in production owing to protester blockades and worker strikes. Domestic silver mine

production increased by 5% in 2019 compared with that in 2018 principally from increased production at mining

operations in Alaska.

World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Peru, and Poland were revised based on new

information from official Government sources.

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 934 980 25,000

Argentina 1,020 1,200 NA

Australia 1,220 1,400

90,000

Bolivia 1,190 1,200 22,000

Chile 1,370 1,300 26,000

China 3,570 3,600 41,000

Mexico 6,120 6,300 37,000

Peru 4,160 3,800 120,000

Poland 1,470 1,700 100,000

Russia 2,100 2,100 45,000

Other countries 3,730 3,600 57,000

World total (rounded) 26,900 27,000 560,000

World Resources: Although silver was a principal product at several mines, silver was primarily obtained as a

byproduct from lead-zinc mines, copper mines, and gold mines, in descending order of production. The polymetallic

ore deposits from which silver was recovered account for more than two-thirds of U.S. and world resources of silver.

Most recent silver discoveries have been associated with gold occurrences; however, copper and lead-zinc

occurrences that contain byproduct silver will continue to account for a significant share of reserves and resources in

the future.

Substitutes: Digital imaging, film with reduced silver content, silverless black-and-white film, and xerography

substitute for traditional photographic applications for silver. Surgical pins and plates may be made with stainless

steel, tantalum, and titanium in place of silver. Stainless steel may be substituted for silver flatware. Nonsilver

batteries may replace silver batteries in some applications. Aluminum and rhodium may be used to replace silver that

was traditionally used in mirrors and other reflecting surfaces. Silver may be used to replace more costly metals in

catalytic converters for off-road vehicles.

Estimated. NA Not available.

One metric ton (1,000 kilograms) = 32,150.7 troy ounces.

Silver content of base metal ores and concentrates, refined bullion, and dore; excludes coinage, and waste and scrap material.

Defined as mine production + secondary production + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.

Engelhard’s industrial bullion quotations. Source: Platts Metals Week.

Balance in U.S. Mint only; includes deep storage and working stocks.

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration. Only includes mines where silver is the primary product.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.

DiRienzo, Michael, and Newman, Philip, 2019, Release of Metal Focus interim silver market review—Silver to remain in a small surplus in 2019,

but improving investor sentiment will help drive the price higher: Silver Institute and Metal Focus, November 19, 2 p.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant reserves were 25,000 tons.

151

SODA ASH

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: The total value of domestic natural soda ash (sodium carbonate) produced in 2019

was estimated to be about $1.8 billion

and U.S. production of 12 million tons was about the same as that of the

previous year. The U.S. soda ash industry comprised four companies in Wyoming operating five plants and one

company in California with one plant. The five producing companies have a combined annual nameplate capacity of

13.9 million tons (15.3 million short tons). Borax, salt, and sodium sulfate were produced as coproducts of sodium

carbonate production in California. Chemical caustic soda, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium sulfite were

manufactured as coproducts at several of the Wyoming soda ash plants. Sodium bicarbonate was produced at an

operation in Colorado using soda ash feedstock shipped from the company’s Wyoming facility.

Based on 2019 quarterly reports, the estimated distribution of soda ash by end use was glass, 47%; chemicals, 30%;

distributors, 6%; soap and detergents, 6%; miscellaneous uses, 5%; flue gas desulfurization, 4%; pulp and paper,

1%; and water treatment, 1%.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Production

11,600 11,800 12,000 11,900 12,000

Imports for consumption 40 35 19 51 100

Exports 6,400 6,760 6,990 6,960 6,900

Consumption:

Apparent

5,200 5,030 5,040 4,980 5,200

Reported 4,990 5,120 4,910 4,850 4,800

Price:

Average sales value (natural source):

f.o.b. mine or plant, dollars per metric ton 155.30 149.83 146.26 148.69 150.00

f.o.b. mine or plant, dollars per short ton 140.88 135.92 132.68 134.89 136.00

Stocks, producer, yearend 285 336 293 297 300

Employment, mine and plant, number

2,500 2,500 2,600 2,600 2,600

Net import reliance

as a percentage

of apparent consumption E E E E E

Recycling: No soda ash was recycled by producers; however, glass container producers use cullet glass, thereby

reducing soda ash consumption.

Import Sources (2015–18): Germany, 28%; Turkey, 25%; Italy, 14%; United Kingdom, 11%; and other, 22%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Disodium carbonate 2836.20.0000 1.2% ad val.

Depletion Allowance: Natural, 14% (Domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Wallace P. Bolen [(703) 648–7727, wbolen@usgs.gov]

152

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

SODA ASH

Events, Trends, and Issues: Relatively low production costs and lower environmental impacts provide natural soda

ash producers some advantage over producers of synthetic soda ash. The production of synthetic soda ash normally

consumes more energy and releases more carbon dioxide than that of natural soda ash. In recent years, U.S.

producers of natural soda ash were able to expand their markets when several synthetic soda ash plants were closed

or idled around the world.

Soda ash exports from Turkey increased in 2018 when a 2.5-million-ton-per-year plant opened all of its production

lines after several months of operational delays. Some of the exports came to the United States starting in September

2018 and several more relatively large shipments were reported in 2019. Total production capacity in Turkey is

estimated to be between 4 million and 5 million tons per year and soda ash shipments, especially for export, are

expected to increase significantly during the next few years.

Three groups dominate production and have become the world’s leading suppliers of soda ash—American National

Soda Ash Corp., which represented three of the five domestic producers in 2019; multiple producers in China; and

Solvay S.A. of Belgium. Increasing soda ash exports from Turkey may affect sales from these three groups. The

United States likely will remain competitive with producers in China and Turkey for markets elsewhere in Asia. Asia

and South America remain the most likely areas for increased soda ash consumption in the near future. U.S.

producers expect modest growth in production and exports through 2020.

World Production and Reserves: Reserves for Ethiopia and Turkey were revised based on Government and

industry reports.

Mine production Reserves

5, 6

Natural: 2018 2019

United States 11,900 12,000

23,000,000

Botswana 240 250 400,000

Ethiopia 8 8 400,000

Kenya 300 300 7,000

Turkey 3,400 3,500 900,000

Other countries NA NA 280,000

World total, natural (rounded) 16,000 16,000 25,000,000

World total, synthetic (rounded) 41,000 42,000 XX

World total (rounded) 57,000 58,000 XX

World Resources: Natural soda ash is obtained from trona and sodium carbonate-rich brines. The world’s largest

deposit of trona is in the Green River Basin of Wyoming. About 47 billion tons of identified soda ash resources could

be recovered from the 56 billion tons of bedded trona and the 47 billion tons of interbedded or intermixed trona and

halite, which are in beds more than 1.2 meters thick. Underground room-and-pillar mining, using conventional and

continuous mining, is the primary method of mining Wyoming trona ore. This method has an average 45% mining

recovery, whereas average recovery from solution mining is 30%. Improved solution-mining techniques, such as

horizontal drilling to establish communication between well pairs, could increase this extraction rate and enable

companies to develop some of the deeper trona beds. Wyoming trona resources are being depleted at the rate of

about 15 million tons per year (8.3 million tons of soda ash). Searles Lake and Owens Lake in California contain an

estimated 815 million tons of soda ash reserves. At least 95 natural sodium carbonate deposits have been identified

in the world, only some of which have been quantified. Although soda ash can be manufactured from salt and

limestone, both of which are practically inexhaustible, synthetic soda ash is costlier to produce and generates

environmental wastes.

Substitutes: Caustic soda can be substituted for soda ash in certain uses, particularly in the pulp and paper, water

treatment, and certain chemical sectors. Soda ash, soda liquors, or trona can be used as feedstock to manufacture

chemical caustic soda, which is an alternative to electrolytic caustic soda.

Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. XX Not applicable.

Does not include values for soda liquors and mine waters.

Natural only.

Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.

The reported quantities are sodium carbonate only. About 1.8 tons of trona yields 1 ton of sodium carbonate.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

From trona, nahcolite, and dawsonite deposits.

153

STONE (CRUSHED)

(Data in million metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: In 2019, 1.53 billion tons of crushed stone valued at more than $18.7 billion was

produced by an estimated 1,430 companies operating 3,440 quarries and 176 sales and (or) distribution yards in 50

States. Leading States were, in descending order of production, Texas, Pennsylvania, Florida, Missouri, North

Carolina, Ohio, Georgia, Virginia, Illinois, and Kentucky, which combined accounted for more than one-half of the total

crushed stone output. Of the total domestic crushed stone produced in 2018, about 69% was limestone and dolomite;

15%, granite; 6%, traprock; 5%, miscellaneous stone; 3%, sandstone and quartzite; and the remaining 2% was

divided, in descending order of tonnage, among marble, volcanic cinder and scoria, calcareous marl, slate, and shell.

It is estimated that of the 1.6 billion tons of crushed stone consumed in the United States in 2019, 72% was used as

construction aggregate, mostly for road construction and maintenance; 16% for cement manufacturing; 8% for lime

manufacturing; 3% for other chemical, special, and miscellaneous uses and products; and 2% for agricultural uses.

The estimated output of crushed stone in the United States shipped for consumption in the first 9 months of 2019 was

1.14 billion tons, an increase of 8% compared with that of the same period of 2018. Third quarter shipments for

consumption increased by 9% compared with those of the same period of 2018. Additional production information, by

quarter for each State, geographic division, and the United States, is reported in the U.S. Geological Survey quarterly

Mineral Industry Surveys for Crushed Stone and Sand and Gravel.

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018

2019

Production 1,340 1,360 1,370 1,420 1,530

Recycled material 48 49 42 48 48

Imports for consumption 20 20 19 21 25

Exports (

) 1 1 (

) (

)

Consumption, apparent

1,410 1,430 1,430 1,480 1,600

Price, average value, dollars per metric ton 10.49 11.07 11.45 11.86 12.26

Employment, quarry and mill, number

67,100 68,100 68,600 68,500 67,900

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption 1 1 1 1 1

Recycling: Road surfaces made of asphalt concrete and portland cement concrete surface layers, which contain

crushed stone aggregate, were recycled on a limited but increasing basis in most States. In 2019, asphalt and

portland cement concrete road surfaces were recycled in all 50 States.

Import Sources (2015–18): Mexico, 56%; Canada, 27%; The Bahamas, 11%; Honduras, 5%; and Jamaica, 1%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–19

Chalk:

Crude 2509.00.1000 Free.

Other 2509.00.2000 Free.

Limestone, except pebbles and gravel 2517.10.0020 Free.

Crushed or broken stone 2517.10.0055 Free.

Marble granules, chippings and powder 2517.41.0000 Free.

Stone granules, chippings and powders 2517.49.0000 Free.

Limestone flux; limestone and other calcareous stone 2521.00.0000 Free.

Prepared by Jason Christopher Willett [(703) 648–6473, [email protected]]

154

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

STONE (CRUSHED)

Depletion Allowance: (Domestic) 14% for some special uses; 5%, if used as ballast, concrete aggregate, riprap,

road material, and similar purposes.

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: Crushed stone production was about 1.53 billion tons in 2019, an increase of 8%

compared with that of 2018. Apparent consumption also increased to about 1.60 billion tons. Consumption of crushed

stone increased in 2019 because of continued growth in the private and public construction markets. Commercial and

heavy industrial construction activity, infrastructure funding, new single-family housing unit starts, and weather, affect

growth in crushed stone production and consumption. Long-term increases in construction aggregates demand are

influenced by activity in the public and private construction sectors, as well as by construction work related to security

measures being implemented around the Nation. The underlying factors that would support a rise in prices of crushed

stone are expected to be present in 2020, especially in and near metropolitan areas.

The crushed stone industry continued to be concerned with environmental, health, and safety regulations. Shortages

in some urban and industrialized areas are expected to continue to increase owing to local zoning regulations and

land-development alternatives. These issues are expected to continue and to cause new crushed stone quarries to

locate away from large population centers.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production

Reserves

2018 2019

United States 1,420 1,530 Adequate, except where special

Other countries

NA NA types are needed or where

World total NA NA local shortages exist.

World Resources: Stone resources are plentiful throughout the world. Supply of high-purity limestone and dolomite

suitable for specialty uses is limited in many geographic areas. The largest resources of high-purity limestone and

dolomite in the United States are in the central and eastern parts of the country.

Substitutes: Crushed stone substitutes for roadbuilding include sand and gravel, and iron and steel slag. Substitutes

for crushed stone used as construction aggregates include construction sand and gravel, iron and steel slag, sintered

or expanded clay or shale, perlite, or vermiculite. Increasingly, recycled asphalt and portland cement concretes are

being substituted for virgin aggregate, although the percentage of total aggregate supplied by recycled materials

remained very small in 2019.

Estimated. NA Not available.

See also Sand and Gravel (Construction) and Stone (Dimension).

Less than ½ unit.

Defined as production + recycled material + imports – exports.

Including office staff. Source: Mine Safety and Health Administration.

Defined as imports – exports.

See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

Consistent production information is not available for other countries owing to a wide variety of ways in which countries report their crushed stone

production. Some countries do not report production for this mineral commodity. Production information for some countries is available in the U.S.

Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, Volume III, Area Reports: International.

155

STONE (DIMENSION)

(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)

Domestic Production and Use: Approximately 2.7 million tons of dimension stone, valued at $440 million, was sold

or used by U.S. producers in 2019. Dimension stone was produced by 197 companies operating 250 quarries in 33

States. Leading producer States were, in descending order by tonnage, Texas, Wisconsin, Indiana, Georgia, and

Vermont. These five States accounted for about 68% of the production quantity and contributed about 56% of the

value of domestic production. Approximately 50%, by tonnage, of dimension stone sold or used was limestone,

followed by sandstone (20%), granite (18%), miscellaneous stone (8%), and marble and slate (2% each). By value,

the leading sales or uses were for limestone (45%), followed by granite (25%), sandstone (11%), miscellaneous stone

(9%), slate (6%), and marble (4%). Rough stone represented 54% of the tonnage and 47% of the value of all the

dimension stone sold or used by domestic producers, including exports. The leading uses and distribution of rough

stone, by tonnage, were in building and construction (53%) and in irregular-shaped stone (35%). The leading uses

and distribution of dressed stone, by tonnage, were in ashlars and partially squared pieces (41%), slabs and blocks

for building and construction (12%), and curbing (11%).

Salient Statistics—United States: 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Sold or used by producers:

Tonnage 2,700 2,960 2,860 2,650 2,700

Value, million dollars 469 448 450 435 440

Imports for consumption, value, million dollars 2,350 2,180 2,120 2,090 1,900

Exports, value, million dollars 75 65 69 70 60

Consumption, apparent, value, million dollars

2,740 2,560 2,500 2,460 2,300

Price Variable, depending on type of product

Employment, quarry and mill, number

4,000 4,000 3,900 3,900 3,900

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption (based on value) 83 83 82 82 81

Granite only, sold or used by producers:

Tonnage 585 593 510 483 480

Value, million dollars 130 130 113 108 110

Imports, value, million dollars 1,330 1,100 1,010 915 880

Exports, value, million dollars 27 21 22 19 18

Consumption, apparent, value, million dollars

1,430 1,210 1,100 1,000 970

Price Variable, depending on type of product

Employment, quarry and mill, number

880 880 800 800 800

Net import reliance

as a percentage of

apparent consumption (based on value) 91 89 90 89 89

Recycling: Small amounts of dimension stone were recycled, principally by restorers of old stone work.

Import Sources (2015–18 by value): All dimension stone: China, 25%; Brazil, 24%; Italy, 21%; Turkey, 16%; and

other, 14%. Granite only: Brazil, 45%; China, 24%; India, 16%; Italy, 8%; and other, 7%.

Tariff: Dimension stone tariffs ranged from free to 6.5% ad valorem, according to type, degree of preparation, shape,

and size, for countries with normal trade relations in 2019. Most crude or roughly trimmed stone was imported at 3.7%

ad valorem or less.

Prepared by Thomas P. Dolley [(703) 648–7710, tdolley@usgs.gov]

156

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2020

STONE (DIMENSION)

Depletion Allowance: 14% (Domestic and foreign); slate used or sold as sintered or burned lightweight aggregate,

7.5% (Domestic and foreign); dimension stone used for rubble and other nonbuilding purposes, 5% (Domestic and

foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Events, Trends, and Issues: The United States remained one of the world’s leading markets for dimension stone.

In 2019, total imports of dimension stone decreased in value by about 9% compared with the value in 2018. In 2019,

steady activity in new residential construction resulted in a slight increase in domestic production of dimension stone

compared with that of the previous year. Dimension stone for construction and refurbishment was used in commercial

and residential markets; in 2019, the renovation market for existing homes remained steady and unchanged

compared with that in the previous year. Dimension stone exports decreased to about $60 million. Apparent

consumption, by value, was estimated to be $2.3 billion in 2019—a 7% decrease compared with that of 2018.

The dimension stone industry continued to be concerned with safety and health regulations and environmental

restrictions in 2019, especially those concerning crystalline silica exposure. Beginning in 2016, the Occupational

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) finalized new regulations to further restrict exposure to crystalline silica at

quarry sites and other industries that use materials containing it. Phased implementation of the new regulations was

scheduled to take effect through 2021, affecting various industries that use materials containing silica. Most

provisions of the new regulations became enforceable on June 23, 2018, for general industry and maritime

operations. On August 14, 2019, OSHA requested comment and information to enable the agency to consider new

developments and enhanced control methods for equipment that generates exposures to silica.

World Mine Production and Reserves:

Mine production Reserves

2018 2019

United States 2,650 2,700 Adequate, except for certain

Other countries NA NA special types and local

World total NA NA shortages.

World Resources: Dimension stone resources of the world are sufficient. Resources can be limited on a local level

or occasionally on a regional level by the lack of a particular kind of stone that is suitable for dimension purposes.

Substitutes: Substitutes for dimension stone include aluminum, brick, ceramic tile, concrete, glass, plastics, resin-

agglomerated stone, and steel.

Estimated. NA Not available.