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A Simplified Guide To Crime
Scene Photography
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Introduction
Anyone!who!has!seen!the!movie!"#!$%&'()!*() )#!(1992)!kn ow s!ho w !a!
snapshot!can!save!the!day.!In!the!film,!inexperienced!New !York!law yer!
Vincent!LaGuardia!“Vinny”!Gambini!travels!to!a!small!southern!town!with!
his!fiancée,!Mona!Lisa!Vito,!to!represent!his!cousin!in!a!murder!case.!Mona!
Lisa’s!incessant!picture!taking !w ith !a !ch e ap !p o ck e t!c amera!causes!
frustration !th ro ug h o ut !the !film ,!b u t!ev e ntu a lly !pr od u ce s!a !ph o tog ra p h !tha t!
holds!the!key!to!the!case.!
Photography!of!everything!from!landscapes!to!historical!events!has!
preserved!and!illustrated!history!for!the!past!200!years.!When!a!photograph!
of!a!forged!document!was!presented!and!allowed!as!courtroom!evidence!in!
1851
[1]
,!photo graphy!as!a!fo r e n s ic !tool!was!bor n !a n d !s o on!became !a !b o o n!to!
cases!of!identification!and!scene!analysis.!Crime!scene!photography!became!
cutting!edge!in!the!1870s!and!new!technologies!have!expanded!its!use!ever!
since.!
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In!this!discussion,!ph oto gra ph s!are !not!ev ide nc e!in!an d!o f!them se lve s,!but!
provide!visual!documentation!of!the!scene!and!locations!of!evidence!within!
the!scene.!Photog rap hs!taken!at!a!crime!scene!allow!investigators!to!
recreate!that!scene!for!later!analysis,!or!for!use!in!the!courtroom.!If!the!
crime!scene!photography!does!not!thoroughly!and!accurately!document!the!
entire!scene,!it!could!be!detrimental!to!the!investigation!and!potentially!
damaging!during!a!criminal!trial.!!
Principles of Crime Scene Photography
There!is!no!prescribed!length!of!time!it!takes!to!photographically!document!
a!crime!scene.!The!amount!of!time!spent!depends!on!the!size!and!!
[1]!!"#$%&'%()*),!64!U.S!(23!How.)!515,!162,!L.!Ed!545!(1859 )!
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complication!in!the!crime!scene,!how!much!there!is!to!document!and!
environmental!factors!like!weather!or!danger!to!the!investigative!team.!It!
can!consist!of!thousands!of!photographs!and!hours!of!work.!
Crime!scene!photography!should!not!just!focus!on!the!obviou s.!The!purp ose!
of!crime!scene!photography!is!to!document!what!is!there!and!where!it!is!in!
relationship!to!the!scene,!whether!it!is!obviously!conn ected !to!the!crime!or!
not.!For!example,!a!photographer!in!Florida!shot!the!inside!of!every!cabinet!
and!the!refrigerator!at!a!homicide!scene!in!a!home,!just!as!a!matter!of!
procedure.!It!was!later!discovered!that!the!victim!had!a!receipt!for!a!six`pack!
of!beer,!matching!the!beer!shown!in!the!photograph!of!the!refrigerator.!
Relatives!noted!that!the!victim!did!not!drink!beer.!Further!investigation!led!
the!team!to!the!co nv enien ce!sto re!w her e!the!b eer!w as !purc has ed!an d!the !
surveillance!tape!showed!the!victim!with!an!un kn ow n!person !purcha sing!
the!beer.!It!turns!out!tha t!the!victim !had!picked!up!a!hitchhiker,!purchased!
beer!for!that!person!and!come!back!to!the!house.!The!photograph!of!the!
refrigerator!contents!had!created!the!link!en abling!the!inve stigators!to!find!
the!suspect.!
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Photography,!or!“writing!or!drawing!with!light”,!is!de fine d !as !th e !pr o ce ss !or !
art!of!producing!images!of!objects!on!sensitized!surfaces!by!the!chemical!
action!of!light!or!of!other!forms!of!radiant!energy,!such!as!X`rays,!gamma!
rays!or!cosmic!rays.!Fixing!an!image!perm a nen tly!has!been !possible !since !
the!1820s!in!a!variety !of!w ays!fro m !the!da gu erreo typ e,!to!silver!pla tes,!to!
film!and!n o w !d ig itally .!
Some!may!consider!photography!more!of!an!art!than!a!science,!but!well`
taken!crime!sc ene !pho tog rap hs!can !aid!scien tists,!investiga tors !and !
members!of!the!court!in!their!search !for!the!tru th.!This!m a kes!p hoto gra ph y!
a!critical!first!responder!skill.!Larger!agencies!may!have!specially!trained!
and!certified!crime!scene!photographers!with!high`end!cameras!and!lighting!
to!docume nt!crim e!sc ene s!and !evide nce ,!but!more!often!the!first!responder!
needs!to!do!what!they!can!with!equipment!assigned!to!them.!That!said,!
many!of!today’s!digital!point`and`shoot!came ras!have!a!variety!of!settings!
that,!with!some!b asic!op era tor!tra ining,!allow !for!p rop er!do cu m enta tion .!
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Photographers!use!several!means!to!tell!the!camera!how!to!capture!the!
image!in cl u din g !ap e rt u re ,!sh u tte r!s p ee d ,!de p th !o f!fiel d!a n d !w h ite !b al an c e.!
Aperture!refers!to!the!size!of!the!opening!that!lets!light!into!the!camera!and!
shutter!speed!is!how !lo n g !th at !op e n in g,!o r!sh u t te r,!re m a in s!o p e n.!D e p th !o f!
field!is!the!amount!of!area!in!fron t!o f!(fo re gr ou n d )!an d !b eh in d !(b ac k gro u n d) !
an!object!that!remains!in!focus.!Lastly,!white!balance!allows!the!camera!to!
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record!the!proper!temp erature !of!light,!resulting!in!an!accurate!
representation!of!the!color!tones!of!objects!in!the!photogra ph. !
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Experienced!photographers!often!use!a!technique!called!“painting!with!
light”!to!exp o se!image!details!in!dark!o r!n ea r`dark!conditions.!In!this!
technique,!the!shutter!is!held!open!for!seconds!or!minutes!and!the!
photographer!walks!through!the!scene!adding!light!from!sources!such!as!a!
flashlight!o r!d eta ch e d !ca m e ra !flas h.!
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However!the!photographer!chooses!to!capture!the!image,!the!main!reason!
for!crime !sce n e!p h ot og ra p hy !is!to !th or ou g hly !d oc u m e n t!th e!e nt ire !sce n e,!th e !
evidence,!and!any!areas!of!special!significance!to!the!investigation.!
Why and when is crime scene
photography used?
Photography!should!be!used!as!part!of!the!documentation!for!all!physical!
crime!scenes,!including!traffic!collisions,!burglaries,!homicides,!or!any!
number!of!crimes!against!people!or!property.!Photographs,!however,!can!be!
misleading!and!confusing!to!the!viewer.!Therefore,!crime!scene!
photographers!must!ensure!their!work!is!both!ethical!and!honest!while!
capturing!as!much!accurate!information!and!detail!as!possible.!Documenting!
all!elements!of!a!crime!scene!is!a!major!stepping!stone!when!trying!to!piece!
together!wha t!hap pe ne d,!how !it!hap pen ed !and !wh o!did!it.!
Crime!scenes!are!typically!full!of!activity!and!often!unpredictable,!with!first!
responders!assisting!victims!and!inve stigators!beginn ing!their!w ork.!Eve n!in!
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the!most!ideal!situation,!capturing!photographic!evidence!can!be!
challenging.!An!experienced!photographer!will!know!to!take!photos!at!all!
stages!of!the!investigation!and!that!it!is!better!to!have!too!many!than!not!
enough!images.!
The!following!steps!are!taken!to!ensure!proper!photographic!
documentation:!
=>!'45./4!-34!<5414?!In!all!forensic!investigation s,!the!first!step !is!to!secu re!the !
crime!scene.!
@>!AB+7.+-4!561C0-061<?!Next,!the!photographer!should!evaluate!the!available!
light!and!weather!conditions !an d !ad ju st!ca mera!settings!appropriately.!
Crime!scenes!can!be!indoors,!outside!or!both;!they!can!be!vehicles,!include!
multiple!rooms,!or!any!combination!of!locations,!therefore!no!single!camera!
setting!will!work!for!all!crime!scenes.!
D>!'366-!-34!<5414?!The!photographer!should!take!photographs!before!
anything!is!disturbed,!progressively!working!through!the!scene!from!outside!
to!close`up!pictures.!Many!shots!should!be!taken,!from!the!entire!scene,!to!
medium!shots!to!show!the!relationship!of!evidence!to!the!overall!scene.!
Just!like!a!television!program!will!show!the!viewer!the!outside!of!a!building!
to!establish!wher e!the!ch ara cters!a re!goin g,!the!crim e!sc ene !pho togr aph er!
should!capture!the!whole!scene!first!using!wide`angle!shots!covering!the!
entire!scene!from!the!approach!and!through!every!area.!Close`up!images!of!
evidence!can!be!taken!out!of!context,!so!establishing!the!scene!first!with!
wide!and!medium!shots!is!critical.!
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In!addition,!pho tog rap hs!sh ou ld!be !tak en !look ing!u p!from!the!scene!to !
capture!evidence!or!environmental!factors!that!may!be!above!the!scene.!
E>!F36-62/+,3!-34!B05-0G<?!The!next!series!of!shots!should!include!victims!(if!
present)!to!show!locations,!injuries!and!condition.!
H>!F36-62/+,3!-34!4B0C4154?!Then!each!piece!of!evidence!should!be!
photographed!to!illustrate!where!it!was!found.!This!establishes!the!
relationships!of!the!evidence!to!the!victim,!the!victim!to!the!room !and !so!on.!
These!photographs!should!be!taken!from!straight!above!or!straight!on!at!
right!angles,!eliminating!potential!distance!distortions.!Each !piece!of!
evidence!should!be!photographed!with!a!scale!to!indicate!size!and!without!a!
scale.!
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I>!AB0C4154!G+/;4/<?!Photographs!should!be!taken!before!evidence!markers!
are!placed,!then!again!after.!These!initial!shots!are!important!to!prove!that!
no!one!has!tampered!with!the!crime!scene.!
J>!K4L<366-!M6/!14N!4B0C4154?!If!investigators!mark !ne w !evid en ce,!the !w ho le!
series!of!shots!should!be!repeated,!including!all!evidenc e!sh o ts.!T he se !
photos!should!include!the!entire!piece!of!evidence!and!a!scale!to!indicate!
size.!!
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Special!imaging!techniques!and!lighting!should!be!used!to!capture!things!like!
fingerprin ts ,!ind en ta tio n s,!shoe!and!tire!track!impressions,!vehicle!
identificat io n!n u mbers!(V I N )!a nd !v er y!s m a ll!p ie ce s !of!e vid e n ce .!T ec h niq u e s!
may!include:!
O!P7-4/1+-4!7023-!<6./54<!QP8'R!–!such!as!lasers,!blue!or!green!lights!and!
colored!filters!that!help!detect!processed!latent!fingerprints!or!other!hidden!
evidence!and!illuminate!for!photographing!
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O!%S70T.4!+1274!7023-012!`!using!a!flashlight,!camera!flash!or!ALS!at!a!very!
low!ang le!to !ca st!sh a d ows!that!allow!an !im print!o r!imp ress ion!to!b e!
photographed!
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O!"+5/6!741<4<!`!can!take!very!close`up!images!(1:1!or!1:2)!of!small!items!
such!as!tool!marks!or!trace!evidence!
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Photographs!should!accurately!document!the!lighting!conditions!at!the!
scene.!After!those!photos!are!taken,!if!necessary,!a!photographer!will!add!
artificial!light,!like!a!flash,!to!compensate!for!a!cam er a’s!limitatio ns!in!
capturing!the!visible!range!of!light!under!certain!conditions.!
U>!'366-!M+<-?!Sometimes!environmental!factors!such!as!rain,!snow!or!traffic!
can!make!conditions!difficult!for!photography.!The!photographer!must!work!
quickly!to!capture!as!much!visual!documentation!as!possible!from!a!
deteriorating!scene.!
V>!F36-62/+,3!-34!B05-0G!7+-4/?!If!a!victim!must!be!mo ve d!or!re qu ires!
treatment,!the!ph oto gra ph er!can !go!b ack !to!doc um e nt!the !victim ’s!injuries.!
Various!techniques!using!specia l!ligh t ing !a nd !c ol or ed !filt er s!ca n !h igh lig h t!
injuries!(b ru is in g,!s ca rrin g )!a n d!h e al ing !st at u s.!
How It’s Done
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Once!working!copies!of!all!the!photographs!have!been!created,!investigators!
can!select!images!for!analysis!and!enhancement.!This!is!normally!done!by!
the!photograp he r!or,!if!available ,!within!th e!aud io/v isua l!depa rtm en t!in!the!
laborato ry .!As!with!all!evid en ce ,!de taile d!r eco rd s!s ho u ld !be !ke pt !reg ar d ing !
who!accesses!or!works!with!the!files!and!what!techniques!were !used!to!
enhance!or!otherwise!modify!the!files.!
The!International!Association!for!Identification!(IAI)!has!a!Certified!Forensic!
Photographer!(CFPH)!
(3--,?YYNNN>-340+0>6/2 Y 54 / - 0M 05 + - 06 1<Y0G+201 2 Y 01C4Z>,3,)!!program,!
established!in!2001.!The!CFPH!process!is!accredited!by!the!Forensic!
Specialties!Accreditation!Board.!This!program!requires!specific!training!or!
coursework!and!testing!that!includes!both!written!and!practical!
assessments.!Evidence!Photographers!International!Council!(EPIC)!
(3--,?YYNNN>4B0C4154,36-62/+,34/<>56GY)!formerly!provided!spe cific!
certification!for!evidence!photographers.!
Many!times,!the!images!are!taken!by!a!member!of!the!investigative!team!that!
is!respon s ib le!fo r!many!cr im e !sc e ne !d u tie s!th a t!a lso !in co r p or at es !
photography.!Depending!on!the!size!of!the!agency!and!support!from!their!
local!labor at ory ,!m o re !exp e rien c ed !ph o to gra p h ers !m a y!b e!a va ilable!for!
major!cases.!
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All!photographs!taken!are!saved!as!originally!captured,!entered!into!
evidence!inventory!and!tracked.!Selected!photographs!of!particular!evidence!
or!parts!of!a!scene!may!need!additional!enhancement.!This!can!be!done!
within!the!department!if!the!appropriate!software!is!available!or!may!be!
sent!to!a!regional!specialist.!The!most!common!en hanc em ents!include!
cropping,!brightness!and!contrast!adjustments!and!color!processing.!
Potential!photographic!enhancements!follow!the!same!rules!as!news!
journalis m.!An!im ag e !m a y !be !lig h te ne d !an d !d ar k en e d ,!cro p p ed !o r!th e !co lo r!
enhanced.!The!white!balance!can!be!adjusted,!but!adding!or!removing!
informa tio n !is!u n a cc ep t ab le .!When!su b mitted!fo r!c ou r tro o m!use,!the !
original!photograph!must!be!available!for!comparison!and!the!technician!or!
examiner!must!be!able!to!show!and!describe!any!enhancements!that!were!
done,!and!why.!
When!images!are!presented,!they!must!be!clearly!identified!as!a!working!
and/or!enhanced!version.!The!origin a l!c a mera!s e q uentia l!n umb e ri n g !s y st e m!
should!be!retained!to!show!that!images!are!in!order!and !none!ha ve!been!
removed.!The!w ork ing!ima ges!shou ld!not!be!rena m ed!un til!identified!or!
selected!for!use,!and!original!files!should!not!be!renamed!at!all.!
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Investigators!an d!te chn ician s!ph oto gra ph ing !a!crim e!sc en e!sho uld !ha ve!
access!to!a!good!quality!camera!that!is!capable!of!manual!override!and!has!
intercha n ge a b le!le n se s ,!off`camera!flash,!cable!release,!and!a!tripod!mount.!
With!these!tools!and!a!widely!attainable!level!of!training!and!practice,!good!
quality!photographs!can!be!taken!in!a!broad!range!of!scenarios!including!
low!light,!hig h ly!re flec tive !su rfa ce s!an d !tigh t!s pa ce s.!
That!said,!many!first!responders!are!equipped!with!basic,!consumer`leve l!
point`and`shoot!cameras.!Since!they!ma y!be!in!the!best!position!to!capture!
import an t !ev id en c e,!b a sic !kn o wledge !of!h o w !t o!c ap t u re !an !image!an d !u se !
the!camera!th ey!ha ve!is!ver y!im po rtan t.!Even !with !simp le!equ ipm e nt,!a!first!
responder!with!introductory!photography!training!can!produce!images!of!
sufficient!quality!to!support!an!investigation.!
Cell!phones!and!other!personal!electronic!devices!with!integrated!cameras!
are!not!recommended!unless!their!use!is!an!operational!necessity.!An!
example!would!be!if!a!muddy!shoe!print!is!found!near!a!crime!scene!but!it!is!
raining.!The!shoe!print!may!disap pea r!quickly,!so!if!a!cell!phone!came ra!is!
the!only!cam era!a vailab le,!then !it!wou ld!be!o per ation ally!ne cessa ry!to!u se!it.!
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The!majority!of!evidence!photography!is!now!done!using!digital!cameras!
and!equipment.!Limitations!in!photography!are!twofold:!limitation!of!the!
camera!in!general!and!lack!of!experience!or!training!of!the!photographer.!
Cameras!cannot!produce!the!same!view!that!the!huma n!eye!see s;!it!is!the!
photographer’s!use!of!the!camera!settings!that!can!affect!what!can!or!cannot!
be!seen!in!a!photograph.!A!trained!photographer!will!recognize!difficult!
lighting!situa tio ns !an d !ad ju st!th e!c amera!settin g s! accordingly.!Often,!more!
than!one!pho to!w ill!be!tak en!o f!the!sam e!v iew ,!in!order!to!p rop erly!ex po se!
for!wide ly!v ar yin g !co n ditio n s!in !a!sin g le !vie w .!
The!use!of!digital!cameras!allows!a!crime!scene!photographer!to!instantly!
review!their!photos!and!m ak e!chan ges!to!the!camera!settings!if!needed!to!
capture!the!best!possible!image!while!still!on!the!scene.!Critical!thinking!
skills!and!analysis!are!constantly!applied!during!the!scene!docum en tation!
process.!An!inexperienced!photographer!will!often!forgo!the!review!process,!
relying!on!their!camera!to!“mak e!the!right!decision s”!for!settings.!
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To!ensure!the!most!accurate!capture,!processing!and!analysis!of!crime!scene!
photographs,!the!management!of!criminal!justice!agencies!and!forensic!
laborato ries !pu ts!in !pla c e!p olic ies!a nd !p ro ce du re s!th a t!go ve rn !fac ilities!a n d!
equipment,!methods!and!procedures,!and!personnel!qualifications!and!
training.!These!Stan da rd!O pe rating !Proc edu res!(S OP s)!are !intend ed!to !
maintain!and!demonstrate!the!integrity!of!the!imag es!an d!information!
captured!at!a!crime!scene!and!its!admissibility!in!court.!Crime!scene!
photography!SOPs!ensure!uniform!processes!are!used!by!photographers!and!
the!information !repr esen ted!in!th e!ima ges !accu rate ly!rep resen ts!ob jects!and!
conditions!at!the!scene!as!they!are!found.!
The!Scientific!Working!Group!on!Imaging!Technology!(SWGIT)!works!to!set!
quality!guidelines!for!the!capture,!storage,!processing,!analysis,!
transmission,!ou tpu t!and !arch iving !of!ima ges.!Th ese!gu idelin es!pro vide!good!
general!practice!standards!for!crime!scene!photographers!and!other!
individu al s!p e rfo rming!ph o to g ra p hy !within!th e!c riminal!just ice !sy st em.!
SWGIT!guidelines!are!available!(!3--,<?YYNNN><N20->6/2YC65.G41-<).!
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A!common!misconception!is!that!digital!images!can!be!changed!more!easily!
than!film!prints!an d!do ne!to!mislead!the!court.!Photographs!created!in!a!
darkroom!from!film!can!also!be!altered!by!a!skilled!photographer!using!a!
wide!variety!of!techniques,!so!they!are!not!necessarily!more!accurate!than!
digital!images.!While!digital!software!exists!that!can!make!drastic!changes!to!
a!digital!image,!a!comparison!of!the!altered!image!with!the!original!makes!
any!changes!obvious.!This!is!why!proper!chain`of`custody!procedure!and!
workflow!is!necessary.!
According!to!the!SWGIT!guidelines:!!“Documenting!image!enhancement!
steps!should!be!sufficient!to!permit!a!comparably!trained!person!to!
understand!the!steps!taken,!the!techniques!used,!and!to!extract!comparable!
informa tio n !fro m!the!im ag e .”!
Similar!to!scientific!research!being!documented!to!allow!other!scientists!to!
perform!the!same!steps!and!get!the!same!results,!image!enhancement!
documentation!should!be!specific!and!in!order.!The!SWGIT!guidelines!
include !ex amples!o f!d o cu mentat ion !a n d!d ra ft!S O P s!
(3--,<?YYNNN><N20->6/2Y,CMYK456GG41C4C!_.0C47014<!M6/!:4B476,012!
'-+1C+/C!%,4/+-012!F/654C./4<]C65(:`HV)(PDF!downloa d)!for!agen cies!
to!customize.!
Another!misconception!may!be!reinforced!by!television!crime!dramas,!and!
that!is!the!idea!that!every!cr im e!scen e!un it!and /or!inv estiga tor!ha s!high`end!
camera!equipment!and!is!thoroughly!trained!in!crime!scene!photography.!
Though!many!are,!it!should!be!clarified!that!equipment,!training!and!
procedures!vary!widely!among!agencies.!
Common Terms
Terminology!in!photography!has!changed!slightly!since!the!rise!of!
professional!digital!cameras!to!include!information!on!digital!equipment!
such!as!light!sensors,!as!well!as!techniques!for!using!computer!software!to!
enhance!images.!The!definitions!below!represent!common!terms!used!in!
general!and!crime!scene!photography.!For!additional!glossary!terms!see!the!
SWGDE!and!SWGIT!Digital!&!Multimedia!Evidence!Glossary!
(3--,<?YYNNN><N20->6/2Y,CMY'W_:A!+1C!'W_(\!:020-+7!+1C!
".7-0G4C0+!AB0C4154!_76<<+/X]C65(:`Ia)!or!the!All!Things!Photogra ph y!
(3--,?YYNNN>+77L-3012<L,36-62/+,3X>56GYC020-+7LC05-061+/X>3-G7)!
website.!
!
!
!
!
PGS041-!8023-!`!Light!already!existing!in!an!indoor!or!outdoor!setting!that!
is!not!cau se d !b y!a n y!ill u m in a tio n !su p p lie d !b y!th e !p h ot o gr ap h e r.!
P,4/-./4!`!opening!in!the!camera!that!lets!in!the!light.!
P<,45-!K+-06!`!The!ratio!of!width!to!height!in!photographic!prints;!a!ratio!of!
2:3!in!35!mm!pictures!produces!photographs!most!commonly!measuring!!
3.5!×!5!inches!or!4!×!6!inches.!
$+G4/+!P1274<!`!Various!positions!of!the!camera!(high,!medium,!or!low;!
and!left,!right,!or!straight!on)!with!respect!to!the!subject,!each!giving!a!
different!viewpoint,!perspective!or!visual!effect.!
$+,-./4!`!The!process!of!recording!data,!such!as!an!image,!video!sequence,!
or!audio!stream.!
$676/!$6//45-061!`!To!correct!or!enhance!the!colors!within!an!image.!
$61-/+<-!`!The!difference!in!darkness!or!density!between!one!tone!or!
another.!
$/6,,012!`!Removing!portions!of!an!image!that!are!outside!the!area!of!
interest.!
:4,-3!6M!b047C!`!The!area!between!the!nearest!and!farthest!points!from!the!
camera!that!are!acceptably!sharp!in!the!focused!image.!
AB0C4154!c.+70-X!F36-6<!`!Imag es!of!su fficient!size !and !qu ality!to!a llow !
comparison!and!examination!by!a!qualified!forensic!expert.!
AZ,6<./4!`!The!quantity!of!light!allowed!to!act!on!photographic!material;!a!
product!of!the!intensity!(controlled!by!the!lens!opening)!and!the!duration!
(controlled!by!the!shutte r!speed )!of!light!striking!the!film!or!sen sor.!
bL<-6,!`!Lens!setting!number!indicating!the!size!of!the!aperture!that!allows!
light!into!the !ca m e ra .!It!is!an !inv er sely !p rop o rtio n ate !nu mber,!so!th at !f/1 .8!
indicates !a!la rg e r!o p en in g !th an !f/ 5 .6. !
b07-4/!`!A!colored!piece!of!glass!or!other!transparent!material!used!over!the!
lens!to!em p ha siz e,!eliminate,!or!ch a n ge !the !co lor !or !de nsity!of!the!entire!
scene!or!certain!areas!within!a!scene.!
('%!',44 C!`!The!sensitivity!of!a!given!film!or!sensor!to!light,!indicated!by!a!
number!such!as!ISO!200.!The!higher!the!number,!the!more!sensitive!or!faster!
the!film!or!sensor.!
841<!',44C!`!The!largest!lens!opening!at!which!a!lens!ca n!be !set.!A!fast!lens!
transmits!m ore!ligh t!and !has!a!lar ger!op en ing!th an!a !slow !lens.!For !example,!
!
!
!
!
f/1.8!wo u ld !set!a !lar ge r!o p en in g!th a n !f/5 .6 !an d !w o u ld,!th e re fore ,!b e!a !fas ter !
lens.!
K+N!b074!`!The!data!captured!by!a!digital!camera!senso r!be fo re!it!is!
converted!into!an!image!file!by!software,!either!inside!the!camera!or!on!a!
stand`alone!computer.!
K4<67.-061!`!In!a!digita l!pho togr ap h,!the !number!of!pixels!w h ich !m ak e!up !
the!image.!
'5+74!`!The!relative!size!of!an!object!as!compared!to!other!objects!in!general!
proximity.!Also!refers!to!a!measuring!device!or!set!of!marks!to!indicate!
object!size!in!a!photograph.!
'3.--4/!`!Blades,!a!curtain,!plate,!or!some!other!movable!cover!in!a!camera!
that!controls!the!tim e!du ring!w h ich!light!rea ches!the!film.!
W6/;012!$6,X!`!A!copy!or!duplicate!of!a!recording!or!data!that!can!be!used!
for!subseq u e nt !pr oc es sin g!a n d/ o r!a na ly sis.!
Additional Resources
You!can!learn!more!about!this!topic!at!the!websites!and!publications!listed!
below.!
K4<6./54<!
Evidence!Photographers!International!Council!(EPIC)!
3--,?YYNNN>4B0C4154,36-62/+,34/<>56GY!
Scientific!Working!Group!on!Imaging!Technology!(SWGIT)!
3--,?YYNNN><N20->6/2!
Professional!Photographers!Association!(PPA)!3--,?YYNNN>,,+>56G!
Stanford!University!Depth!of!Field!
(3--,?YY2/+,305<><-+1M6/C>4C.Y56./<4<Y5<=JUL=aY+,,74-<YC6M>3-G7)!
Stanford!University!Variables!That!Affect!Exposure!
(3--,?YY2/+,305<><-+1M6/C>4C.Y56./<4<Y5<=JUL
==Y+,,74-<Y4Z,6<./4>3-G7)!
Crime!Scene!Resources!Crime!Scene!and!Evidence!Photography!
(3--,?YYNNN>5/0G4L<5414L01B4< -02+ -6 />14 -Y5< 0L,36-6>3-G7)!
!
!
!
!
K4M4/4154<!
Robinson,!E.!$K("A!'$A)A!F[%\%_KPF[#^!'A$%):!A:(\(%),!Else v ie r!
Academic!Press,!Burlington,!MA!(2010).!
Law!Enforcement!&!Emergency!Services!Video!Association!(LEVA)(accessed!
June!27,!2 0 1 2) .!3--,?YYNNN>74B+>6/2!!
National!Center!for!Audio!&!Video!Forensics!(NCAVF)!(accessed!June!27,!
2012).!3--,?YYNNN>15+BM>56G!
DSLR!Camera!Simulator!CameraSim,!SLR!Photography!Demystified.!
(accessed!June!27,!2012 )!3--,?YY5+G4/+<0G>56GY5+G4/+L<0G.7+-6/Y!
Levoy,!Marc; !A d a ms,!Andrew;!Dek ta r ,!Katie;!Willett ,!Nora.!V a r ia b l e s!t h a t !
Affect!Exposure,!2011.!Flash!applets!on!some!technical!aspects!of!
photography!(Stanford!University!CS!179!`!Digital!Photography).!(accessed!
June!27,!2 0 1 2) !3--,?YY2/+,305<><-+1M6/C>4C.Y56./<4<Y5<=JUL
==Y+,,74-<Y4Z,6<./4>3-G7!
McHugh,!Sean.!Understanding!Depth!of!Field.!Cambridge!in!Color.!(accessed!
June!27,!2 0 1 2) !3--,?YYNNN>5+GS/0C24015676./>56GY-.-6/0+7<YC4,-3L6ML
M047C>3-G!(accessed!June!27,!201 2)!
P5;16N74C2G41-<!
The!authors!wish!to!thank!the!following!for!their!invaluable!contributions!to!
this!forensic!guide:!
945;X!$+/-4/^!$AF^!National!Forensic!Science!Technology!Center!
:410<4!W402+1C,!B$,/0'-#%K0&/'2-312$,,!Pasco!C ounty !S h e r iff’s !Depar t ment!! !
:+11X!)05367<,!National!F o re nsic!Sci e n c e !T e c h n ology!Center!
! !
!
!
!
!
Forensic Evidence Admissibility and
Expert Witnesses
How!or!why!some!scientific!evidence!or!expert!witnesses!are!allowed!to!be!
presented!in!court!and!some!are!not!can!be!confusing!to!the!casual!observer!
or!a!layperson!reading!about!a!case!in!the!media.!!However,!there!is!
significant!precedent!that!guides!the!way!these!decisions!are!made.!Our!
discussion!here!will!briefly!outline!the!three!major!sources!that!currently!
guide!evidence!and!testimony!admissibility.!!
\34!Frye%'-+1C+/C!d!'5041-0M05!AB0C4154!+1C!-34!
F/0150,74!6M!_414/+7!P554,-+154!
In!1923,!in!B,</%&)%(0-2/I%*212/'
[1]
,!the!Dis t r ict!of!Columbia!Court!rejected!the!
scientific!validity!of!the!lie!detector!(polygraph)!because!the!techn ology!did!
not!have!significant!general!acceptance!at!that!time.!!The!court!gave!a!
guideline!for!determining!the!admissibility!of!scientific!examinations:!!
L"'2%84/0%1 %'#-/0 2-6-#%7,-0 #-7 9/%$,%I -'#$& /,< %#,$ ''/'%24 /%9-0/ %=/2 8 // 0%24 /%
/M7/,-./0219%10I%I/.$0'2,1=9/%'213/'%-'%I-66-#"92%2$%I/6-0/)%*$./84/,/%-0%24-'%
28-9-342%N$0/%24/%/&-I/ 02-19%6$,# /%$6%24/%7, -0#-79/%. " '2%=/%,/#$ 30 -N/IA%10 I%
84-9/%24/%#$",2'%8-99%3$%1%9$03%81<%-0%1I.-22-03%/M7/,-./0219%2/'2-.$0<%
I/I"#/I%6,$.%1%8/99O,/#$30-N/I%'#-/02-6-#%7,-0#-79/%$,%I-'#$&/,<A%24/%24-03%
6,$.%84-# 4%24 /%I/ I" #2-$ 0%-'%. 1 I/ %. "'2%= /%<.MM05041-7X!4<-+S70<34C!-6!3+B4!
2+014C!2414/+7!+554,-+154%-0%24/%71,2-#" 91 ,%6-/ 9I%-0 %8 4 -# 4%-2%=/9$03 ')%
Essentially,!to!apply!the!“B,</!Standard”!a!court!had!to!decide!if!the!
procedure,!technique!or!principles!in!question!were!generally!accepted!by!a!
meaningful!proportion!of!the!relevant!scientific!community.!!This!standard!
prevailed!in!the!federal!courts!and!some!states!for!many!years.!
b4C4/+7!K.74<!6M!AB0C4154^!K.74!Ja@!
In!1975,!mo re!th an !a!ha lf`cen tury!after!B,</%was!decided,!the!Federal!Rules!
of!Evidence!were!adopted!for!litigation!in!federal!courts.!They!included!rules!
on!expert!testimony.!Their!alternative!to!the!B,</%Standard!came!to!be!used!
more!broadly!because!it!did!not!strictly!require!general!acceptance!and!was!
seen!to!be!more!flexible.!!!
!
!
[1]!293!Fed.!1013!(1923)!
!
!
!
!
The!first!version!of!Federal!Rule!of!Evidence!702!provided!that!a!witness!
who!is!qualified!as!an!expert!by!knowledge,!skill,!experience,!training,!or!
education!may!testify!in!the!form!of!an!opinion!or!otherwise!if:!
a. the!expert’s!scientific,!technica l,!or!other!sp ecialized !kn ow led ge!w ill!help!the !
trier!of!fact!to!understan d!the!evidence!or!to!determine!a!fact!in!issue;!
b. the!testimony!is!ba sed !on!su fficient!facts!or !data;!
c. the!testimony!is!the!p rod uct!o f!reliable!p rinciple s!and !m etho ds;!an d!
d. the!expert!has!reliably!ap plied !the!prin ciples!a nd!m e thod s!to!the!fac ts!of!the!
case.!
!
While!the!states!are!allowed!to!adopt!their!own!rules,!most!have!adopted!or!
modified!the!Federal!rules,!including!those!covering!expert!testimony.!!!
In!a!1993!case ,!?1"=/,2%&)%P/,,/99%?$8%G41,.1#/"2-#19'A%K0#)A!the!United!
States!Supreme!Court!held!that!the!Federal!Rules!of!Evidence,!and!in!
particular!Fed.!R.!Evid.!702,!superseded!B,</Q'%"general!acceptance"!test.!!!
\34!Daubert!'-+1C+/C!d!$6./-!P554,-+154!6M!AZ,4/-!
\4<-0G61X!
In!?1"=/,2!and!later!cases
[2]
,!the!Co urt!exp l a in e d !t h a t !the!fede r a l!s t a n d a r d !
include s!g en e ra l!ac ce p ta n ce ,!b u t!a lso !lo o k s!a t!th e !scie n ce !a nd !its !ap p lic a tio n .!
Trial!judges!are!the!final!arbiter!or!“gatekeeper”!on!admissibility!of!evidence!
and!acceptance!of!a!witness!as!an!expert!within!their!own!courtrooms.!
In!deciding!if!the!scie nce !and !the!expert!in!question!should!be!permitted,!the!
judge!sh o u ld !co n sid e r:!
• What!is!the!basic!theory!and!has!it!been!tested?!
• Are!there!standards!controlling!the!technique?!
• Has!the!theory!or!technique!been!subjected!to!peer!review!and!
publication?!
• What!is!the!known!or!potential!error!rate?!
• Is!there!genera l!acce pta nc e!of!the !theo ry? !
• Has!the!expert!adequately!accounted!for!alternative!explanations?!
• Has!the!expert!unjustifiably!extrapolated!from!an!accepted!premise!
to!an!unfoun ded !con clusio n?!
!
The!?1"=/,2!Court!also!observed!that!concerns!over!shaky!evidence!could!
be!handled!through!vigorous!cross`examination,!presentation!of!contrary!
evidence!and!careful!instruction!on!the!burden!of!proof.!!!
!
!
[2]!The!“Daubert!Trilogy”!of!case s!is:!:P& 9AK\!*>!"AKKA88!:%W!F[PK"P$A&\($P8',!_A)AKP8!
A8A$\K($!$%>!*>!e%()AK!and!f&"[%!\(KA!$%>!*>!$PK"($[PA8.!
!
!
!
!
In!many!state s,!scien tific!exp ert!tes tim on y!is!now!subject!to!this! ?1"=/,2!
standard.!!But!some!states!still!use!a!modification!of!the!B,</!standard.!
W36!5+1!<4/B4!+<!+1!4Z,4/-!M6/41<05!<504154!N0-14<<!+-!
56./-]!!!
Over!the!years,!evidence!presented!at!trial!has!grown!increasingly!difficult!
for!the!ave ra g e!ju ro r!to !un d e rsta n d .!!By !ca lling !o n!a n !ex p ert !w itn e ss!who!can !
discuss!complex!evidence!or!testing!in!an!easy`to`understand!manner,!trial!
lawyers !ca n!b et ter!p re se nt !the ir!ca se s!an d !jur or s!ca n !be !be tte r!eq u ipp e d!to !
weigh!the!evidence.!But!this!brings!up!additional!difficult!questions.!How!
does!the!court!define!whether!a!person!is!an!expert?!What!qualifications!
must!they!meet!to!provide!their!opinion!in!a!court!of!law ?!
These!questions,!too,!are!addressed!in!b4C>!K>!AB0C>!Ja@.!!It!only!allo ws!
experts!“qualified!…!by!knowledge,!skill,!experience,!training,!or!education.“!!
To!be!considered!a!true!expert!in!any!field!generally!requires!a!significant!
level!of!trainin g !an d !ex pe rien c e.!Th e !va rio us !fore n sic!d iscip lin es!fo llo w !
different!training!plans,!but!most!include!in`house!training,!assessments!and!
practical!exams,!and!continuing!education.!Oral!presentation!practice,!
includin g!moot!co u rt !ex p erience!(simulated!courtroom!proceeding),!is!very!
helpful!in!preparing!examiners!for!questioning!in!a!trial.!!
Normally,!the!individual!that!issued!the!laboratory!report!would!serve!as!the!
expert!at!court.!By!issuing!a!report,!that!individual!takes!responsibility!for!
the!analysis.!This!perso n!co uld!b e!a!su perv isor!or!tec hn ical!lead er,!but!
doesn’t!necessarily!need!to!be!the!one!who!did!the!analysis.!The!opposition!
may!also!call!in!experts!to!refute!this!testimony,!and!both!witnesses!are!
subject!to!the!standard!in!use!by!that!court!(B,</A%?1"=/,2,!Fed.!R.!Ev id!702) !
regarding!their!expertise.!!!
Each!court!can!accept!any!person!as!an!expert,!and!there!have!been!
instance s!where!in d iv idu a ls !w h o !la ck !p ro p e r!tra in in g!a n d !ba c kg ro u n d !h av e !
been!declared!experts.!When!necessary,!the!opponent!can!question!potential!
witnesses!in!an!attempt!to!show!that!they!do!not!have!applicable!expertise!
and!are!not!qualified!to!testify!on!the!topic.!!The!admissibility!decision!is!left!
to!the!judge.!
PCC0-061+7!K4<6./54<!
F.S705+-061<?!
Saferstein,!Richard.!$K("()P8('\($'?!!P)!()\K%:&$\(%)!\%!b%KA)'($!
'$(A)$A,!Pear s o n !Educa t io n ,!I n c .,!U pper!S a d d l e !River,!N J!( 2 0 07).!
McClure,!David.!Report:!Focus!Group!on!Scientific!and!Forensic!Evidence!in!
the!Courtroom !(o nline),!20 07,!
!
!
!
!
3--,<?YYNNN>15g/<>26BY,CMM074<=Y10gY2/+1-<Y@@aIV@>,CM!(accessed!July!
19,!2012)!
P5;16N74C24G41-<!
The!authors!wish!to!thank!the!following!for!their!invaluable!contributions!to!
this!guide:!
K6S01!W30-74X,!+4-/6%?/7"2<,!Appell a te !Divisio n ,!D e nver!D is t ric t !Attorn e y ’s !
Office,!Second!Judicial!District!
:4S/+!b02+/4770,!?@R%C/#40-#19%P1013/,,!National !F o r e n s ic !S c ie n c e !
Technology!Center,!Inc.!
About This Project
This!project!was!developed!and!designed!by!the!National!Forensic!Science!
Technology!Center!(NFSTC)!under!a!cooperative!agreement!from!the!Bureau!
of!Justice!Assistance!(BJA),!award!#2009`D1`BX`K028.!!Neither!the!U.S.!
Department!of!Justice!nor!any!of!its!components!operate,!control,!are!
responsible!for,!or!necessarily!en d o rs e,!th e !co n te n ts!h e re in .!
National!Forensic!Science!Technology!Center®!
NFSTC!*#-/0#/%*/,&-03%L"'2-#/®!
8285!Bryan!Dairy!Road,!Suite!125!
Largo,!Florida!33777!
(727)!395`2511!
info@n fs tc.o rg !
!!!!!!! !
!
