LilyPond
The music typesetter
Music Glossary
The LilyPond development team
☛
✟
This glossary provides definitions and t r ans lat i on s of musical terms used in the documentation
manuals for LilyPond version 2.24.4.
✡ ✠
☛ ✟
For more information about how this manual fits with the other documentation, or to read th is
manual in other formats, see Section “Manuals” in General Information.
If you are missing any manuals, the complete documentation can be found at
https://lilypond.org/.
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Copyright
c
⃝ 1999–2022 by the authors
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License , Version 1.1 or any later version
published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections. A copy of
the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
For Li ly Pond version 2.24.4
1
1 Musical terms A-Z
Languages in this order.
• UK - Br i t is h E ngl i sh ( wh er e it d i ffer s fr om Ameri can English)
• ES - S p ani sh
• I - Ital i an
• F - French
• D - G er man
• NL - Du t ch
• DK - Danish
• S - Swedish
• FI - F i nn i sh
1.1 A
• ES: la
• I: la
• F: la
• D: A, a
• NL: a
• DK: a
• S: a
• FI: A, a
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
1.2 a due
ES: a dos, I: a due, F: `a deu x , D: ?, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: kahdel l e.
Abbreviated a2 or a 2. In orchestral scores, a due indicates that:
1. A single part notated on a single staff that normally car ri es parts for two players (e.g., first
and second oboes) is to be played by bot h pl ayers .
2. Or conversely, that two pitches or parts notated on a staff that normally carries a single
part (e.g., first violin) are to be played by different players, or groups of players (‘desks’).
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.3 accelerando
ES: accelerando, I: accelerando, F: accelerando, en acc´e l´erant, D: accelerando, schneller werden,
NL: accelerando, DK: accelerando, S: accelerando, FI: accelerando, kiihdy t t ¨aen.
[Italian: ‘speed up, accelerate’]
An increase in the tempo, abbreviated accel.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 2
1.4 accent
ES: acento, I: accento, F: accent, D: Akzent, NL: accent, DK: accent, S: accent, FI: aksentti,
korostus.
The stress of one tone over others.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.5 accessory
See also
Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
1.6 acciaccatura
ES: mordente de una nota, I: acciaccatura, F: acciaccature, appoggiature br`eve, D: Zusammen-
schlag, NL: samenslag, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
A grace note which takes its time from the rest or note preceding the principal note to which
it is attached. The acciaccatura is drawn as a small eighth note (quaver) with a line drawn
through the flag and stem.
See also
Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6, Section 1.146 [grace notes], page 36, Section 1.210 [mor-
dent], page 53, Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
1.7 accidental
ES: alteraci ´on accidental, I: alterazione, accidente, F: alt´eration accid entelle, D: Versetzungsze-
ichen, Akzidenz, NL: toevallig (verplaatsings)teken, DK: løst fortegn, S: tillf¨alligt f¨ortecken, FI:
tilap¨ainen etumerkki.
An accidental alters a note by:
• Raising its pitch:
• By two sem it on es —d oub l e shar p
• By one semitone—sharp
• Lowering i t s p it ch:
• By one semitone—flat
• By two sem it on es —d oub l e flat
• Or canceling the effects of the key signature or previous accidentals.
flat
.
natural
. .
double
flat
.
double
sharp
sharp
.
See also
Section 1.13 [alteration], page 4, Section 1.270 [semitone], page 68, Section 1.341 [whole tone] ,
page 83.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 3
1.8 adagio
ES: adagio, lento, I: adagio, F: adagio, lent, D: Adagio, Langsam, NL: adagio, DK: adagio, S:
adagio, FI: adagio, hitaasti.
[Italian: ‘comfortable, easy’]
• Slow t e mpo, slower – especially i n e ven meter – than andante and faster than largo.
• A movement in slow tempo, especially the second (slow) movement of sonat as, symphonies,
etc.
See also
Section 1.19 [andante], page 5, Section 1.171 [largo], page 43, Section 1.286 [sonata], page 71.
1.9 al fine
[Italian: ‘to the end’]
In an instruction s uch as D.C. al Fine, indicates th at the performance should continue to the
point marked Fine.
See also
Section 1.79 [da capo], page 20, Section 1.81 [dal segno], page 21, Section 1.130 [fine], page 32.
1.10 al niente
ES: al niente, I: al niente, F: al niente, en mourant, D: ? , NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: h¨aviten
olemattomiin.
[Italian: ‘to nothing’] Used with decrescendo to indicate that the sound should fade away to
nothing.
Al niente is indicated by circling the tip of the hairpin:
N .
ª
. N
or with the actual phrase al niente:
.
al niente
decresc.
ª
. .
Since one does not crescendo to nothing, it is not correct to use al niente with crescendo.
Instead, one should use dal niente (from nothing).
See also
Section 1.74 [crescendo], page 19, Section 1.80 [dal niente], page 21, Section 1.82 [decrescendo],
page 21, Section 1.151 [hairpin], page 37.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 4
1.11 alla breve
ES: alla breve, I: alla breve, F: alla breve, `a la br`eve, D: Allabreve, alla breve NL: ?, DK: ?, S:
?, FI: ?.
[Italian: ‘on the breve’] Twice as fast as the notation indicates.
Also called in cut time. The name derives from mensural notation, where the tactus (or
beat) is counted on the semibreve (the modern whole note). Counting ‘on the breve’ shifts the
tactus to the next longest note value, which (in modern usage) effect i vely halves all note values.
In mensural not at i on, breves and semibreves can have a ternary relationship, in which case
alla breve means thrice (not twice) as fast. In practice, t hi s complication may not have mat-
tered, since Gaffurius’s system of multiplex proportions makes it easy to explicitly state which
proportion is needed.
See also
Section 1.43 [breve], page 11, Section 1.157 [hemiola], page 39, Section 1.195 [mensural no-
tation], page 47, Section 1.222 [note value], page 55, Section 1.249 [proportion], page 62,
Section 1.339 [whole note], page 82.
1.12 allegro
ES: allegro, r´apido, I: allegro, F: allegro, gaiement, D: Allegro, Schnell, Fr¨ohlich, Lustig, NL:
allegro, DK: allegro, S: allegro, FI: allegro, nopeasti.
[Italian: ‘cheerful’] Quick tempo. Also used as a title for pieces in a quick tempo, especially
the first and last movements of a sonata.
See also
Section 1.286 [sonata], page 71.
1.13 alteration
ES: alteraci´on, I: alterazione, F: alt´eration, D: Alteration, NL: verhoging of verlaging, DK:
Forandring, S: F¨or¨andring, FI: muunnettu.
An alteration is the modification, raising or lowering, of a note’s pitch. It is established by
an accidental.
See also
Section 1.7 [accidental], page 2.
1.14 alto
ES: alto, I: contralto, F: alto, D: Alt, NL: alt, DK: alt, S: alt, FI: altto, matala nai s¨a¨ani.
A f em al e voice of low range (contralto). O ri gi n all y the alto was a high male voice (hence the
name), which by castration or the use of falsetto reached the height of the natural femal e voice.
This type of voice is also known as countertenor.
See also
Section 1.73 [countertenor], page 19.
1.15 alto clef
ES: clave de do en terc er a, I: chiave di contralto, F: cle f d’ut troisi`eme ligne, D: Altschl¨ussel,
Bratschenschl¨ussel, NL: alt sleutel, DK: altnøgle, S: altklav, FI: alttoavain.
C c le f set t i ng mid dl e C on the middle line of t h e staff.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 5
See also
Section 1.45 [C clef], page 12.
1.16 ambitus
ES: ´ambito, I: ambitus, F: ambitus, tess it u r e, D: Ambitus, NL: ambitus, DK: ambitus, S: ambi-
tus, FI: ambitus, ¨a¨aniala, soitinala.
[Latin: past participle of ambire, ‘to go around’; plural: ambitus] Denotes a range of pitches
for a given voice in a part of music. It may also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument
is capable of playing. Sometimes anglicized to ambit (pl. ambits).
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.17 anacrusis
ES: anacrusa, I: anacrusi, F: anacrouse, l ev´ee, D: Auftakt, NL: opmaat, DK: optakt, S: upptakt,
FI: kohotahti.
An anacrusis (also known as pickup or upbeat) is an incomplete measu re of music before a
section of music. It also refers to the initial note(s) of a melody occurring in that incomplete
measure.
u
h
h
h
P
h h
h
NP
hh
u
ª h
P
h
h
h
h
See also
Section 1.189 [measure], page 46, Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.18 ancient minor scale
ES: escala menor natural, I: scala minore naturale, F: forme du mode mineur anci en , t r oi s`eme
mode, mode hell´enique, D: reines Moll , nat¨urliches Moll, NL: authentieke mineurtoonladder,
DK: ren mol, S: ren mollskala, FI: luonnollinen molliasteikko.
Also called ‘natural minor scale’.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.19 andante
ES: andante, I: andante, F: andante, allant, D: Andante, Gehend, NL: andante, DK: andante,
S: andante, FI: andante, k¨ayden.
[Italian: present participle of andare, ‘to walk’]
Walking tempo/character.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 6
1.20 appoggiatura
ES: apoyatura, I: appoggiatura, F: appoggiat ur e, (port de voix), D: Vorschlag, Vorhalt NL:
(korte) voorslag, DK: forslag, S: f¨orslag, FI: appoggiatura, etuhele.
Ornamental note, usually a second, that is melodically connected with the main note following
it. In music before the 19th century appoggiature were usually p e r for med on the beat, after that
mostly before the beat. While the short appoggiatura is performed as a short note regardless of
the d ur at i on of the main note the durat i on of the long appoggiatura is proportion al to that of
the main note.
h
h h
h
h
h
performance
h
h
h
h
h
h
v
h
h
hh
h
h
notation
ª
h
h
h
h
h
v
h
An appoggiatura may have m ore n ot es pr ec ed in g the main note.
h P
h
P
h
h
h
h
h
hh
h
hh
P
Ph
h
h
h
h
h
2
4
v
h
h
notation
h
v
h
h
hh
h
performance
h
h
h
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.21 arpeggio
ES: arpegio, I: ar peggio, F: arp`ege, D: Arpeggio, Akkordbrechungen, ge br ochener Akkord, NL:
gebroken akoord, DK: arpeggio, akkordbrydning, S: arpeggio, FI: arpeggio, murtosointu.
[Italian: ‘harp-like, played like a harp’]
P
u
h
h
h
h
N
h
h
h
h
h
P
u
h
N
ª
ª
h
h
h
h
h
h
u
h
P
h
h
h
N
h
h
h
h
N
hP
h
k
u
2
h
h
h
hh
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 7
1.22 articulation
ES: articulaci´on, I: articolazione, F : ar t ic ul at i on, D: Artikulation, NL: articulatie, D K : ?, S: ?,
FI: artikulaatio, ilmaisu.
Articulation refers to notation which indicates how a note or notes should be played. Slurs,
accents, staccato, and legato are all examples of articulation.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.23 ascending interval
ES: int e rvalo ascendente, I: intervallo ascendente, F: intervalle ascendant, D: steigendes Intervall,
NL: stijgend interval, DK: stigende interval, S: stigande interval l , FI: n ous eva intervalli.
A d is t anc e between a startin g lower note and a higher en di n g not e.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.24 augmentation
ES: aumentaci´on, I: aumentazione, F: augmentation, D: Augmentation, NL: Augmentatio, DK:
Forøgelse, S: F¨orstoring, FI: aika-arvojen pident¨aminen.
This is a placeholder for augmentation (wrt mensural notation).
See also
Section 1.88 [diminution], page 24, Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47.
1.25 augmented interval
ES: int er valo aumentado, I: intervallo aumentato, F: intervalle augment´e, D: ¨u berm¨aßiges In-
tervall, NL: overmatig interval, DK: forstørret interval, S: ¨overstigande intervall, FI: ylinouseva
intervalli.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.26 autograph
ES: manus cr i to, I: autografo, F: manuscrit, autographe, D: Autograph, Handschrift, NL: man-
uscript, DK: h˚andskrift, autograf, S: handskrift, FI: k¨asinkirjoitettu nuotti.
• A manuscript wr i tt e n i n th e composer ’ s own hand.
• Music prepared for photoreproduction by fr eeh an d drawing, with the aid of a straightedge
ruler and T-s qu ar e only, which attempts to emulate engraving. This required more skill
than did engraving.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 8
1.27 B
• ES: si
• I: si
• F: si
• D: H, h
• NL: b
• DK: h
• S: h
• FI: H, h
See also
Section 1.150 [H], page 36, Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
1.28 backfall
See also
Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6.
1.29 bar
See also
Section 1.189 [measure], page 46.
1.30 bar line
ES: barra, l´ınea divisoria, I: stanghetta, barra (di divisione), F: barre (de mesure), D: Taktstrich,
NL: maatstreep, DK: taktstreg, S: taktstreck, FI: tahtiviiva.
A vertical l i n e t hr ou gh the staff (or throu gh multiple staves) that separates measures. Used
very infrequently during the Renaissance (mostl y in secular music, or in sacred music to indicate
congruences between parts in otherwise-unmetered music).
See also
Section 1.189 [measure], page 46.
1.31 baritone
ES: bar´ıtono, I: baritono, F: bariton, D: Bariton, NL: bariton, DK: baryton, S: baryton, FI:
baritoni, keskikorkuinen mies¨a¨ani.
The male voice intermediate in pitch between the bass and the tenor.
See also
Section 1.33 [bass], page 9, Section 1.309 [tenor], page 76.
1.32 baritone clef
ES: clave de fa en tercera, I: chiave di baritono, F: clef d’ut cinqui`eme lign e, clef de fa troisi`eme,
D: Baritonschl¨ussel, NL: baritonsleutel, DK: bary t on nøgl e, S: barytonk l av, FI: bariton i avain.
C or F cl ef s et t i ng mid d le C on the up per s t aff lin e.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 9
See also
Section 1.45 [C clef], page 12, Section 1.124 [F clef], page 31.
1.33 bass
ES: bajo, I: basso, F: basse, D: Bass, NL: bas, DK: bas, S: bas, FI: basso, matala mies¨a¨ani.
• The lowest male voice.
• Sometimes, especially in jazz music, used as an abbreviation for double bass.
See also
Section 1.295 [strings], page 73.
1.34 bass clef
ES: clave de fa en cuarta, I: chiave di basso, F: clef de fa quatri`eme ligne, D: Bassschl¨ussel, NL:
bassleutel, DK: basnøgle, S: basklav, FI: bassoavain.
A cl e f set t in g wit h mi d dl e C on the fir st t op l e dge r li ne .
See also
Section 1.124 [F clef], page 31, Section 1.158 [hi gh bass clef], page 39.
1.35 beam
ES: barra (de corcheas), I: coda, F: ligature, barre (de croches), D: Balken, NL: waardestreep,
DK: bjælke, S: balk, FI: palkki.
Line connecting a series of notes (shorter t han a quarter note). The number of beams
determines the note value of the connected notes.
h hh
1/32
h
h h hh
1/64
hh
hh
1/8
h
1/16
hhh
See also
Section 1.126 [feathered beam], page 31.
1.36 beat
ES: tiempo, parte (de comp´as) I: tempi, F : temps, battue D: Takt, Taktschlag, Zeit (im Takt),
NL: tel, DK: (takt)slag, S: taktslag, FI: aika-arvo.
Note value used for counting, most often h alf -, fourth-, and eighth n ot es. Th e base counting
value and the number of them in each measure is indicated at the start of the music by the time
signature.
hh
h
h
h
h
P
h
h
h
.h
ª
3
8
h
See also
Section 1.318 [time signature], page 78.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 10
1.37 beat repeat
See also
Section 1.233 [percent repeat], page 59.
1.38 bind
See also
Section 1.316 [tie], page 78.
1.39 brace
ES: llave, corchete, I: graffa, F: accolade, D: Klammer, Akkolade, NL: accolade, teksthaak, DK:
klamme, S: klammer, FI: yhdist¨av¨a sulkumerkki.
Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves.
Curly b r ace s are used for connecting p i ano staves, and sometimes for connecting t h e staves
of like instruments in an orchestral score when written on different staves (e.g., first and second
flutes):
h
N
Y
h
ª
.
ª
Angular brackets for connecting parts in an orchestral or choral score:
h
N
7
6
h
ª
.
ª
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.40 bracket
ES: corchete, I: parentesi quadra, F: crochet, D: ?, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: sulkumerkki.
See also
Section 1.39 [brace], page 10.
1.41 brass
ES: metales, I: ottoni, D: Blechbl¨aser, NL: koper (blazers), F: cuivres, DK: messingblæsere, S:
brassinstrument, m¨assingsinstrument, FI: vaskisoitin.
A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup formed mouth piece.
The brass instruments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are trumpet, trombone, French
horn, and tuba. In marching bands, sousaphones and contrabass bugles are common.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 11
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.42 breath mark
ES: respiraci´on, I: respir o, F: respiration, D: Atemzeichen, Trennungszeich en , NL: repercussi-
eteken, DK: vejrtrækningstegn, S: andningstecken, FI: hengitysmerkki.
Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
See also
Section 1.48 [caesura], page 12.
1.43 breve
• US: breve, double-whole note
• ES: cuadrada, breve
• I: breve
• F: br`eve
• D: Brevis
• NL: brevis
• DK: brevis
• S: brevis
• FI: brevis, kaksoiskokonuotti
Note value: twice the length of a whole note (semibreve).
Mainly used i n music from before 1650. In mensural notati on , it was a note of fairly short
duration—hence the name, which is Latin for ‘short’ or ‘of short duration’.
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47, Section 1.222 [note value], page 55, Section 1.269
[semibreve], page 68.
1.44 C
• ES: do
• I: do
• F: ut, do
• D: C, c
• NL: c
• DK: c
• S: c
• FI: C, c
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 12
1.45 C clef
ES: clave de do, I: chiave di do, F: clef d’u t, D: C-Schl¨ussel, NL: C-sleutel, DK: c-nøgle, S: c-klav,
FI: C-avain.
Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note lines.
Tenor
.
Baritone
.
Alto Soprano
.
.
Mezzosoprano
.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.46 cadence
ES: cadencia, I: cadenza, F : cadence, D: Kadenz, NL: caden s, DK: kadence, S: kadens, FI:
kadenssi, lopuke.
See also
Section 1.154 [harmonic cadence], page 38, Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35.
1.47 cadenza
ES: cadenza, I: cadenza, F: cadence, D: Kadenz, NL: cadens, DK: kadence, S: kadens, FI:
kadenssi, lopuke.
An extended, improvi s at ory style section inserted near the end of movement. The purpose
of a cadenza is to give singers or players a chance to exhibit their technical skill and – not last
– their ability to improvise. Since the middle of the 19th century, however, most cadenzas have
been written down by the composer.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.48 caesura
ES: cesura, I: cesura, F: c´esure, D: Z¨asur, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: v¨alimerkki.
[Latin: from the supine of caedere ‘to cut down’]
The break between two mus ic al phrases, sometimes (but not always) marked by a rest or a
breath mark.
See also
Section 1.42 [breath mark], page 11.
1.49 canon
ES: canon, I: canone, F: canon, D: Kanon, NL: canon, DK: kanon, S: kanon, FI: kaanon , tarkka
j¨aljittely.
See also
Section 1.72 [counterpoint], page 19.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 13
1.50 cent
ES: cent, I: cent, F: cent, D: Cent, NL: cent, DK: cent, S: cent, FI: sentti, puolis¨avelaskeleen
sadasosa tasavireisess¨a viritysj¨arjestelm¨ass¨a.
Logarithmic unit of measuring pitch differences. 1 cent is 1/1200 of an octave (1/100 of an
equally tempered semitone).
See also
Section 1.120 [equal temperament], page 30, Section 1.270 [semitone], page 68.
1.51 central C
See also
Section 1.204 [middle C], page 52.
1.52 chord
ES: acorde, I: accordo, F: accord, D: Akkord, NL: akkoord, DK: akkord, S: ackord, FI: sointu.
Two or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European music the base chord is
a tri ad consisting of two thirds. M aj or ( major + minor third) as well as minor (minor + major
third) chords may be extended with more t h ir d s. Four-tone seventh chords and five-tone ninth
major chords are most often used as domi n ants (functional harmony). Chords having no thir d
above the lower notes to define their mood are a special case called ‘open ch or ds ’. The lack of
the middle third means their quality is ambivalent – neither major nor minor.
seventh
.
.
.
.
augmented
.
.
.
.
ninth
.
.
.
.
major
.
.
.
diminished
.
.
.
minor
.
.
.
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.163 [interval], page 41, Section 1.164
[inversion], page 41, Section 1.252 [quality], page 63, Section 1.312 [third], page 77.
1.53 chord grid
F: grille d’accords.
Chord grids notate chords in a visual way by placing them in squares. They are used for jazz
music, mainly in France.
B
7
11
Am
7
P
P
Em
7
/D
G
B
m
7
E
7
Em
7
A
7
/C
Cm
7
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 14
1.54 chromatic scale
ES: escala crom´atica, I: scala cromatica, F: gamme chromatiq u e, D: chromatische Tonleiter , NL:
chromatische toonladder, DK: kromatisk skala, S: kromatisk skala, FI: kromaattinen asteikko.
A sc al e consi st i n g of all 12 semit on es.
.
..
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
See also
Section 1.270 [semitone], page 68.
1.55 chromaticism
ES: cromatismo, I: cromatismo, F: chromatisme, D: Chromatik, NL: chromatiek, DK: kromatik,
S: kromatik, FI: kromatiikka.
Using tones extraneous to a diatonic scale (minor, major).
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.56 church mode
ES: modo eclesi´astico, I: modo ecclesiastico, F: mode eccl´esiastiq ue , m ode d ’´eglis e, D: Kir chen-
tonart, NL: kerktoonladder, DK: kirketoneart, S: kyrkotonart, FI: moodi, kirkkos¨avellaji.
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.57 clef
ES: clave, I: chiave, F: cl´e, clef , D: Schl¨ussel, Notenschl¨ussel, NL: sleutel, DK: nøgle, S: klav, FI:
avain, nuottiavain.
The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which pitches. The three clef symbols
in common use are:
The Treble or G clef:
The Bass or F clef:
The Alto or C clef:
Imagine a large staff of 11 lines centered on middle C, sometimes called a ‘grand st aff’, with
the bottom line representing low G and the top line high F:
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 15
g,
.
d''
.
.
g' b'
.
.
f''
.
f a
.
.
b, d
.
.
e'
.
c'
Staves of five lines are usually used, and the clef superimposed on them indicates which five
lines have been selected from this grand s t aff . For example , the treble or G clef indicates t h at
the top five lines have been selected:
.
e'
.
g'
.
d'' f''
.
b'
.
d
.
g,
.
b,
.
a
.
c'
.
f
.
The ‘curl’ of the G clef is centered on the line that represents the pitch G.
In the same way, the bass or F clef indicates that the bottom five lines have been selected
from the grand st aff , and the alto or C clef indicates the middle five lines h ave been selected.
This relationship is shown below, where the notes show an arpeggio on a C major chord.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
See also
Section 1.45 [C clef], page 12, Section 1.124 [F clef], page 31, Section 1.144 [G clef], page 35.
1.58 cluster
ES: racimo, I: cluster, F: cluster, D: Cluster, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: klust er i, cluster.
A clu s ter i s a range of simultaneously soundi n g pitches that may change over time. The set
of available pitches to apply usually depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a
cluster typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided by the piano’ s fixed
set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary
pitch within the cluster’s range t h at is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In
electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cove r a continuous r ange of pitches, thus
resulting in colored noise, such as pink noise.
Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by engraving simple geomet-
rical shapes that replace ord in ar y notation of notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify
starting time and duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the shape
of t h e note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of the note symbol. In contrast,
the shape of a cluster geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical
extent) over ti me (horizontal extent). Still, t h e geometric al shape of a cluster covers the area in
which any single pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
ª
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 16
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.59 comma
ES: coma, comma, I: com ma, F: comma, D: Komma, NL: komma, DK: komma, S: komma, FI:
komma, korvinkuultava ero ¨a¨anenkorkeudessa.
Difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuni ng and the same note derived from
some other tuning method.
See also
Section 1.85 [didymic comma], page 23, Section 1.250 [Pythagorean comma], page 63,
Section 1.305 [syntonic comma], page 75, Section 1.307 [temperament], page 76.
1.60 common meter
Another name for Section 1.62 [common time], page 16.
See also
Section 1.62 [common time], page 16, Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.61 Common Practice Pe ri od
ES: ?, I: Periodo di pratica comune, F: musique classique moderne, D: Kunstmusik, NL: ?, DK:
?, S: ?, FI: ?.
This is a stub for Common Practice Period (CPP).
See also
Section “Note names in other languages” in Notation Reference.
1.62 common time
ES: compasillo, I: tempo semplice, F: mesure `a 4/4, D: ?, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: C-merkint¨a.
4/4 t i me. The symbol, which resembles a capital letter C, comes from mensural notation.
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47, Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.63 complement
ES: interval o invertido, I: rivolto, F: intervalle compl´ementaire, D: Komplement¨arintervall,
NL: complementair interval, DK: komplementærinterval, S: komplement¨arinter vall (?), FI:
t¨aydent¨av¨a intervalli .
See also
Section 1.165 [inverted interval], page 42.
1.64 compound interval
ES: intervalo compuesto, I: intervallo com posto, F: intervalle c ompos´e, D: weites Intervall, NL:
samengesteld interval, DK: sammensat interval, S: sammansatt intervall, FI: oktaavia laajempi
intervalli.
Intervals l ar ger than an octave.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 17
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.65 compound meter
ES: comp´as compuesto, comp´as de subdivisi´on ternaria, I: tempo composto, F: mesure compos´ee,
D: Dreiertakt, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: kolmijakoinen tahtilaji.
A me t er th at i nc lu d es a tr ip l et su bdi v is i on wi t h in t he beat, su ch as 6/8, 9/8, 12/8.
See also
Section 1.198 [meter], page 49, Section 1.277 [simple meter], page 69.
1.66 compound time
ES: comp´as compuesto, comp´as de amalgama (def. 2), I: tempo mis t o, F: temps compos´e, D:
zusammengesetzte Taktart, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: yhdistetty tahtilajiosoitus.
1. A meter that includes a triplet subdivision within the beat: see Sect ion 1. 65 [ c ompound
meter], page 17.
2. A time signature that additively combines two or more unequal meters, e.g., ‘3/8 + 2/8’
instead of ‘5/8’. Sometimes called additive time signatures.
\relative c' {
\key f \major
\compoundMeter #'((3 8) (2 8) (3 8))
c8 d e f4 d8 c bes
c4 g'8 e c f4.
\bar "||"
}
h
u
h
h
Ph
h
h
h
h
3
8
+
2
8
+
3
8
h
h
h
h
See also
Section 1.65 [compound meter], page 17, Section 1.198 [meter], page 49, Section 1.244 [poly-
metric time signature], page 61.
1.67 concert pitch
ES: e n Do, tono de concierto, I: intonazione reale, F: tonalit´e de concert, en ut, D: Kammerton,
NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: konserttikorkeus.
The pitch at which the piano and other nontransposing instruments play: such instruments
are said to be ‘in C’. The following list includes some (but not all) instruments that play in
concert pitch:
WoodwindsStrings
• flute
• oboe
• bassoon
• violin
• viola
• violoncello
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 18
Instruments that play ‘in C’ but in a different octave than what is written are, technically
speaking, transposing instruments:
• piccolo (plays an octave hi ghe r t h an wri t te n)
• celesta (plays an octave hi ghe r t h an wri t t en )
• classical guitar (plays an octave lower than written)
• double bass (plays an octave l ower than wri tt e n)
See also
Section 1.321 [transposing instrument], page 79.
1.68 conjunct movement
ES: movimiento conjunto, I: moto congiunto, F : mouvem ent conjoint, D: schrittweise, stufenweise
Bewegung, NL: stapsgewijze, trapsgewijze beweging, DK: trinvis bevægel se , S: stegvis r¨orelse,
FI: asteittainen liike.
Progressing melodically by intervals of a second, as contrasted with disjunct movement.
h
h
h
h
.hh
ª
h
Nh
N
See also
Section 1.90 [disjunct movement], page 24.
1.69 consonance
ES: consonancia, I: consonanza, F: consonance, consonnance, D: Konsonanz, NL: consonant,
DK: konsonans, S: konsonans, FI: konsonanssi, sopusointi.
See also
Section 1.156 [harmony], page 38.
1.70 contralto
ES: contralto, I: contralto, F: contralto, D: Alt, NL: contralto, DK: alt, S: alt, FI: kontra-altto.
See also
Section 1.14 [alto], page 4.
1.71 copying music
A music copyist did fast freehand score s and parts on preprinted staff lines for performance.
Some of their conventions (e.g., the placement of note heads on st ems ) varied slightly from
those of engravers. Some of their working met h ods were superior and coul d well be adopted by
music typesetters.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 19
1.72 counterpoint
ES: contrapunto, I: contrappunto, F: cont r epoint, D: Kontrapunkt, NL: contrapunt, DK: kon-
trapunkt, S: kontrapunkt, FI: kontrapunkti, ¨a¨ani ¨a¨ant¨a vastaan.
From Latin punctus contra punctum, note against note . The combination into a single musical
fabric of lines or parts which have dist in ct melodic si gni fi can ce . A frequently used polyphonic
technique is imitation, in its strictes t form found in the canon need i ng only one part to be
written down while the ot h er parts are perform ed with a given displacement. I mi t ati on is also
the contrapuntal technique used in the fugue which, since the music of the baroque era, has
been one of t h e mos t popul ar poly ph oni c composi t i on met hods.
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
u
h
h
u
h
u
h
h
h
h
h
h
P
h
h
h
ª
ª
o
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.73 countertenor
ES: contratenor, I: controtenore, F: contre-tenor, D: Countertenor, Kontratenor, NL: con-
tratenor, DK: kontratenor, S: kontratenor, counter tenor, FI: kontratenori.
See also
Section 1.70 [contralto], page 18.
1.74 crescendo
ES: crescendo, I: crescendo, F: crescendo, D: Crescendo, lau t er werden, NL: crescend o, DK:
crescendo, S: crescendo, FI: cresendo, voimistuen.
Increasing volume. Indicated by a rightwards open in g horizontal wedge (hairpin) or the
abbreviation cresc.
h
.
ª
h
h
h
See also
Section 1.82 [decrescendo], page 21, Section 1.151 [hairpin], page 37.
1.75 cue-notes
ES: notas gu´ıa, I: notine, F: petites notes pr´ec´edant l’entr´ee d’un instrument, r´eplique, `a
d´efaut , D: Stichnoten, NL: stichnoten, DK: stiknoder, S: inprickningar, FI: vihjenuotit.
Notes belonging to one part printed in another to h int when to start playing. Usually printed
in a s mal l er type.
See also
Compare: Section 1.229 [ossia], page 58.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 20
1.76 custos
ES: custos, I: custos, guida, F: guidon, D: Notenzeiger, Custos, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: v ih j e.
A custos (plural: custodes) is a staff symbol that appears at the end of a staff line with
monophonic musical contents (i.e., with a single voice). It anticipates the pitch of the first
note of the following line and thus helps the player or singer to manage line breaks during
performance, which enhances the readability of a score.
Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 16th century. There were diffe r ent
appearances for different notation styles. Nowadays, they have survived only in special for ms of
musical notation such as the Editio Vaticana, dating from the beginning of the 20th century
9
;
;
ª
.
.
.
.
2
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.77 cut time
See also
Section 1.11 [alla breve], page 4.
1.78 D
• ES: re
• I: re
• F: r´e
• D: D, d
• NL: d
• DK: d
• S: d
• FI: D, d
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
1.79 da capo
ES: da capo, I: da capo, F: da capo, depuis le commencement, D: da capo, von Anfang, NL: da
capo, DK: da capo, S: da capo, FI: da capo, alusta.
Abbreviated D.C. Indicates that the piece is to be repeat e d from the beginning to the end
or to a cer t ain place marked Fine.
See also
Section 1.9 [al fine], page 3, Section 1.81 [dal segno], page 21, Section 1.130 [fine], page 32.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 21
1.80 dal niente
ES: dal niente, de la nada, I: dal niente, F: partant de rien , D: aus dem Nichts, d al niente, NL:
?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: tyhj¨ast¨a ilmaantuen.
[Italian: ‘from nothing’] Used with cre sc en do to indicate that the sound should gradu al ly
increase from nothing.
See also
Section 1.10 [al niente], page 3.
1.81 dal segno
ES: dal segno, I: dal segno, F : dal segno, dep ui s le signe, D: dal segno, ab dem Zeichen, NL: dal
segno, DK: dal segno, S: dal segno, FI: dal segno, l¨ahtien merkist¨a.
Abbreviated D.S. Repetition, not f rom the beginning, but from another place frequently near
the beginning marked by a s ign (segno):
h
h
D.S.
j
N
h
j
h
h
ª
.
h
See also
Section 1.9 [al fine], page 3, Section 1.79 [da capo], page 20, Section 1.130 [fine], page 32.
1.82 decrescendo
ES: decrescendo, I: decrescendo, D: Decrescendo, leiser werden, NL: decrescend o, DK : de-
crescendo, S: decrescendo, FI: decresendo, hiljentyen.
Decreasing t one volume. Indicated by a leftwards open in g horizontal wedge (hairpin) or th e
abbreviation decresc.
h
.
ª
h
h
h
See also
Section 1.74 [crescendo], page 19, Section 1.87 [diminuendo], page 23, Section 1.151 [hairpin],
page 37.
1.83 descending interval
ES: intervalo descendente, I: intervallo discendente, F: intervalle descendant, D: fallendes Inter-
vall, absteigendes Intervall, NL: dal en d interval, DK: faldende interval, S: fallande intervall, FI:
laskeva intervalli.
A d is t anc e between a startin g high er note and a lower ending note.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 22
1.84 diatonic scale
ES: escala diat´onica, I: scala diatonica, F: gamme diatonique, D : diatonische Tonleiter, NL:
diatonische toonladder, DK: diatonisk skala, S: diatonisk skala, FI: diatoninen asteikko.
A scale consisting of 5 whole tones and 2 semitones (S). Scales played on the whi t e keys of a
piano keyboard are diatonic. These scales are somet i mes called, somewhat inaccurately, ‘church
modes’).
These modes are used in Gregorian chant and in pre -b aroqu e early music but also to som e
extent in newer jazz music.
.
.
.
.
~~ S
.
~~ S
.
Ionian
.
.
.
.
.
~~ S
.
.
.
.
Dorian
.
~~ S
.
.
~~ S
.
.
.
.
.
~~ S
Phrygian
.
.
~~ S
.
.
.
~~ S
.
.
Lydian
.
.
.
.
.
~~ S
.
.
~~ S
.
Mixolydian
.
.
.
.
~~ S
.
.
.
.
.
Aeolian
~~ S
.
.
~~ S
.
.
.
.
.
.
~~ S
Locrian
.
From the beginning of the 17th century the scales used in European compositional music
are primarily the major and the minor scales. In the harmonic minor scale type an augmented
second (A) occurs between the 6th and 7th tone.
.
.
.
.
~~ S
.
~~ S
.
Major
.
.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 23
.
.
~~ S
.
.
.
.
.
Ancient (or Natural) minor
~~ S
.
.
~~ A
.
~~ S
.
.
~~ S
.
Harmonic minor
.
.
~~ S
.
.
.
.
.
~~ S
.
.
Melodic minor ascending
.
~~ S
.
.
.
.
~~ S
.
.
~~ S
.
Melodic minor descending
.
.
See also
Section 1.270 [semitone], page 68, Section 1.341 [whole tone], page 83.
1.85 didymic comma
See also
Section 1.305 [syntonic comma], page 75.
1.86 diminished interval
ES: intervalo disminuido, I: intervallo diminuito, F: inter valle diminu´e, D: vermindertes Inter-
vall, NL: verminderd interval, DK: formindsket interval, S: f¨orminskat intervall, FI: v¨ahennetty
intervalli.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.87 diminuendo
ES: diminuendo, I: diminuendo, F: diminuendo, en diminuant, D: diminuendo, NL: diminuendo,
DK: diminuendo, S: diminuendo, FI: diminuendo, hiljentyen.
Abbreviated
dim.
It indicates a decrease in tone volume.
See also
Section 1.82 [decrescendo], page 21.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 24
1.88 diminution
ES: disminuci´on, I: diminuzione, F: diminut i on , D: Diminution, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: aika-
arvojen tihennys.
This is a stub for diminution (wrt mensural notati on) .
See also
Section 1.24 [augmentation], page 7, Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47.
1.89 direct
ES: directo, I: ?, F: direct, D: Weiser, Zeiger, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: suora.
See also
Section 1.76 [custos], page 20.
1.90 disjunct movement
ES: movimiento disjunto, I: moto disgiunto, F: mouvement disjoint, D: sp ru n ghaf t e Bewegung,
NL: sprongsgewijze beweging, DK: springende bevægelse, S: hoppande r¨orelse, FI: melodian
hyppiv¨a li i ke.
Progressing melodicall y by intervals larger than a major second, as contrasted with conjunct
movement.
N
h
h
h
Ph
hP
u
ª
h
u
h
h
See also
Section 1.68 [conjunct movement], page 18.
1.91 dissonance
Another name for Section 1.92 [dissonant interval], page 24.
See also
Section 1.92 [dissonant interval], page 24, Section 1.156 [harmony], page 38.
1.92 dissonant interval
ES: intervalo disonante, disonancia, I: intervallo dissonante, dissonanza, F: intervalle dissonant,
dissonance, D: Dissonanz, NL: dissonant interval, dissonant, DK: dissonerende interval, disso-
nans, S: dissonans, FI: dissonanssi, dissonoiva intervalli, riitasointi.
See also
Section 1.156 [harmony], page 38.
1.93 divisio
ES: divisi´on, I: divisio, F: division, D: Divisio, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: j¨asennysmerkki.
[Latin: ‘division’; pl. divisiones] In Gregorian chant, a vertical stroke through part or all of
the staff that serves to structure a chant into phrases and sections. There are four types:
• divisio minima, a short pause
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 25
• divisio maior, a m ed i um paus e
• divisio maxima, a long pause
• finalis, to indicate the end of a chant, or the end of a section in a long antiphonal or
responsorial chant.
TODO: musical example here?
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.94 doit
ES: elevaci´on [de tono], I: portame nto indeterminato verso l’alto/l’acuto, F : saut, D: Glissando
zu unbestimmter Tonh¨ohe, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: nousu.
Indicator for an i n de t er mi nat e ly rising pitch bend. Compare with glissando, which has de-
terminate starting and ending pitches.
See also
Section 1.125 [fall], page 31, Section 1.145 [glissando], page 36.
1.95 dominant
ES: domi nante, I: dominante, F: dominante, D: Dominante, NL: dominant, DK: dominant, S:
dominant, FI: dominantti, huippusointu.
The fifth scale degree in functional harmony.
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
1.96 dominant ninth chord
ES: acorde de novena de d omi nante, I: accordo di nona di dominante, F : accord de neuvi`eme de
dominante, D: Dominantnonenakkord, NL: dominant noon akkoord, DK: dominantnoneakkord,
S: dominantnonackord, FI: dominanttinoonisointu.
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13, Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35.
1.97 dominant seventh chord
ES: acorde de s´eptima de dominante, I: accordo di settima di dominante, F: accord de septi`eme
de dominante, D: Dominantseptakkord, NL: dominant septiem akkoord, DK: dominantsepti-
makkord, S: dominantseptimackord, FI: dominanttiseptimisointu.
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13, Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35.
1.98 dorian mode
ES: modo d´orico, I: modo dorico, F: mode dorien, D: dorisch, dorischer Kirchenton, NL: dorische
toonladder, DK: dorisk skala, S: dorisk tonart, FI: doorinen moodi.
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 26
1.99 dot (augmentatio n dot)
ES: puntillo, I: punto (di valore), F: point, D: Punkt (Verl¨angerungsp un k t ) , NL: punt, DK :
punkt, S: punkt, FI: piste.
See also
Section 1.100 [dotted note], page 26, Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.100 dotted note
ES: nota con puntillo, I: nota puntata, F: note point´ee, D: punktierte Note , NL: gepuncteerd e
noot, DK: punkteret node, S: punkterad not, FI: pisteellinen nuotti.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.101 double appoggiatura
ES: apoyatura doble, I: appoggiatura doppia, F: appoggiature double, D: doppelter Vorschlag,
NL: dub bele voorslag, DK: dob bel t forslag, S: dubbel sl ag, FI: kaksoisappoggiatura, kaksoise-
tuhele.
See also
Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6.
1.102 double bar line
ES: doble barra, I: d opp i a barra, F: double barre, D: Doppelst ri ch, NL: dubbele maatstreep,
DK: dobbeltstreg, S: dubbelstreck, FI: kaksoistahtiviiva.
Indicates the end of a section within a movement.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.103 double dotted note
ES: nota con doble puntillo, I: nota doppiamente puntata, F: note doublement point´ee, D:
doppelt punktierte Note, NL: dubbelgepuncteerde noot, DK: dobbeltpunkteret node, S: dubbel-
punkterad not, FI: kaksoispisteellinen nuotti.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.104 double flat
ES: doble bemol, I: doppio bemolle, F: double b´emol, D: Doppel-B, NL: dubbel mol , DK: dob-
belt-b, S: dubbelbe, FI: kaksoisalennusmerkki.
See also
Section 1.7 [accidental], page 2.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 27
1.105 double sharp
ES: doble sostenido, I: doppio diesis, F: double di`ese, D: Doppelkreuz, NL: dubbelkr ui s, DK:
dobbeltkryds, S: dubbelkors, FI: kaksoisylennysmerkki.
See also
Section 1.7 [accidental], page 2.
1.106 double time signature
ES: comp´as polim´etrico, I: indicazione di tempo doppia/polimetrica, F: mesure compos´ee,
m´etrique compos´ee, D: zusammengesetzte Taktart, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: kaksois-aika-
arvomerkint¨a.
See also
Section 1.244 [polymetric time signature], page 61.
1.107 double trill
ES: trino doble, I: doppio trill o, F: trille double, D : Doppeltriller, NL: dubbele triller, DK:
dobbelttrille, S: dubbeldrill, FI: kaksoistrilli.
A si multaneous tr i l l on two notes, usu all y i n t h e dis tan ce of a thi r d.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.108 duple meter
ES: tiempo binario, I: tempo binario, F: m´etrique binaire, D: in zwei, grader Takt, NL: tweedelige
maatsoort, DK: todelt takt, S: tv˚atakt, FI: kaksoistempo.
See also
Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.109 duplet
ES: dosillo, I: duina, F: duolet, D: Duole, NL: duool, DK: duol, S: duol, FI: duol i .
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.110 duration
ES: duraci´on, I: durata, F: dur´ee, D: Dauer, L¨ange, NL: duur, lengte, DK: varighed, S: tonl¨angd,
FI: kesto, aika-arvo.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.111 dynamics
ES: din´amica, matices, I: dinamica, F: nuances, D: Dynamik, Lautst¨arke, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?,
FI: ¨a¨anen voimakkuusvaihtelu , dynam ii k ka.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 28
The aspect of music relating to degrees of loudness, or changes f r om one degre e to anothe r.
The terms, abbreviations, and symbols used to indicate this informat i on are called dynamic
marks.
See also
Section 1.238 [piano], page 60, Section 1.136 [forte], page 34, Section 1.74 [crescendo], page 19,
Section 1.82 [decrescendo], page 21, Section 1.87 [diminuendo], page 23.
1.112 E
• ES: mi
• I: mi
• F: mi
• D: E, e
• NL: e
• DK: e
• S: e
• FI: E, e
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
1.113 ecclesiastical mode
See also
Section 1.56 [church mode], page 14, Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.114 eighth note
• UK: quaver
• ES: corchea
• I: croma
• F: croche
• D: Achtel, Achtelnote
• NL: achtste noot
• DK: ottendedelsnode
• S: ˚attondelsnot
• FI: kahdeksasosanuotti
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.115 eighth rest
• UK: quaver rest
• ES: silencio de corchea
• I: pausa di croma
• F: demi-soupir
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 29
• D: Achtelpause
• NL: achtste rust
• DK: ottendedelspause
• S: ˚attonddelspaus
• FI: kahdeksasosatauko
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.116 elision
ES: sinalefa, I: elisione, F: ´elisi on , D: Elision, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: tavujen yhdist¨aminen
yhteen ¨a¨aneen.
More properly synalepha [New Lat. > Gr. συναλoιϕη, from Gree k συναλoιϕην ‘to smear
together’].
The sin gi ng of several sy l lab l es on a single note. Elision may be indicated by a lyric tie,
which looks like (and serves the same function) as a musical tie.
See also
Section 1.183 [lyric tie], page 45.
1.117 embellishment
See also
Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
1.118 engraving
ES: grabado, I: incisione, F: gravure, D: Notenst ich, Notendruck NL: st e ken, DK: nodestik, S:
nottryck, FI: painatus.
Engraving means incising or etching a metal plate f or p r inting. Photoengraving means draw-
ing music with ink in a manner similar to drafting or engineering drawing, using similar tools.
The traditional process of music p ri nting is done through cutting in a plate of metal. Now
also the term for the art of music typesetting.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.119 enharmonic
ES: enarm´onico, I: enarmonico, F: enharmonique, D: enharmonisch, NL: enharmonisch, DK:
enharmonisk, S: enharmonisk, FI: enharmoninen.
Two not es, i ntervals, or scales are enh arm oni c i f th ey have differ ent names but equ al p i tch.
.
.
dim fifth
.
.
augm fourth
.
g sharp
a flat
.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 30
1.120 equal temperament
ES: temperamento igual, I: temperamento equabile, F: temp´erament ´egal, D: glei chschweben d e
Stimmung, NL: gel i jk zwevend e temperatuur, DK: ligesvævende t e mper atu r , S: liksv¨avande tem-
peratur, FI: tasavireinen.
A tuning system that divides the octave into 12 equal semitones (each of wh ich is precisely
equal to 100 cents).
See also
Section 1.50 [cent], page 13, Section 1.270 [semitone], page 68, Section 1.307 [temperament],
page 76.
1.121 expression mark
ES: expresi´on, I: segno d’espressione, F: signe d’expression, indication de nuan ce , D: Vortragsze-
ichen, NL: voordrachtsteken, DK: foredragsbetegnelse, S: f¨oredragsbeteckning, FI: nyanssi osoi -
tus, esitysmerkki.
Performance indications concerning:
• volume, dynamics (for example, forte, crescendo),
• tempo (for example, andante, allegro).
See also
Section 1.12 [allegro], page 4, Section 1.19 [andante], page 5, Section 1.74 [crescendo], page 19,
Section 1.136 [forte], page 34.
1.122 extender line
ES: l´ınea de extensi´on [de melisma, de bajo cifrado, etc.], I: linea di estensione, F: ligne
d’extension [de m´elisme, de basse chiffr´ee, etc.], D: F¨ulllinie, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: piden-
nysviiva.
The generic term (in LilyPond) for a line (or dash) of arbit r ar y length that extends text
(without indicating the musical function of that text).
Used in many contexts, for example:
• In vocal mu si c to indicat e th e syll abl e for a melisma. Called ‘extension’ in the Dolmetsch
Online Music Dictionary (https://www.dolmetsch.com/defse1.htm).
• In figured bass to indicate that:
• The extended note should be held t h r ough a change in harmony, when applied to one
figure –OR–
• The chord thus represented should be held above a moving bass line, when applied to
more than one figure.
• These uses were not completel y standardized, and some composer s used a single exten-
der line to indicate the latter case.
• In string music to indicate that all notes i n the passage thus indicated shoul d be played on
the same string. On the violin , for example, a series of notes to be played on the G string
would be indicated sul G, another series to be played on the D string would be indicated
sul D, and so on.
• With an octave mark to i n di cat e that a passage is to be played higher or lower by the given
number of octaves.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 31
See also
Section 1.192 [melisma], page 47, Section 1.300 [sul G], page 74, Section 1.315 [thorough bass],
page 77, Section 1.225 [octave mark], page 57, Section 1.226 [octave marking], page 57.
1.123 F
• ES: fa
• I: fa
• F: fa
• D: F, f
• NL: f
• DK: f
• S: f
• FI: F, f
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
1.124 F clef
ES: clave de fa, I: chiave di fa, F: clef de fa, D: F-Schl¨ussel , NL: F-sleutel, DK: F-nøgle, S: f-klav,
FI: F-avain.
The position between the dots of the key symbol i s the line of the F below central C. Used
on the third, four t h and fifth note line. A digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that the n ot es
must be played an octave higher (for example, bass recorder) while 8 below the clef symbol
indicates playing an octave lower ( f or ex amp le , on t he Dou b le Bass).
octave up
8
.
octave down
8
.
.
varbaritone
.
sub-bass
.
bass
See also
Section 1.32 [baritone clef], page 8, Se ct i on 1.295 [st r in gs] , page 73.
1.125 fall
ES: ca´ıda [de tono], I: portamento indeterminato verso il basso/il grave, F: chute, D: Glissando
zu unbestimmter Tonh¨ohe n ach unten, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: lask u.
Indicator for an ind et e rm in at el y falling pitch bend. Compare with glissando, which has
determinate starting and ending pitches.
See also
Section 1.94 [doit], page 25, Section 1.145 [glissando], page 36.
1.126 feathered beam
ES: barra p r ogre si va, I: travatura convergente/divergente, F: ligature en soufflet, lien de croches
en soufflet, D: gespreizter Balken, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: kiilapalkki.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 32
A type of beam used to indicate that a small group of n ot es should be played at an increasing
or decreasing tempo – depending on the direction of ‘feathering’ – but without changing the
overall tempo of the piece.
See also
Internals Reference: Section “Manual beams” in Notation Reference.
1.127 fermata
ES: cal de r´on, I: corona, F: point d’orgue, point d ’ar rˆet, D: Fermate, NL: fermate, DK: fermat,
S: fermat, FI: fermaatti, pid¨ake.
Prolonged note or rest of indefinite duration.
N
w
h
ª
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.128 fifth
ES: quinta, I: quinta, F: quinte, D: Quinte, NL: kwint, DK: kvint, S: kvint, FI: kvintti.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.129 figured bass
ES: bajo cifrado, I: basso continuo, basso numerato, F: basse chiffr´ee, basse continue, D: Gen-
eralbass, bezifferter Bass, NL: basso continuo, becijferde bas DK: generalbas, S: generalbas, FI:
kenraalibasso, numeroitu basso.
Also called ‘thorough bass’.
A method of indicating an accompaniment part by the bass notes only, together with figures
designating the chief intervals and chords to be played above the bass notes.
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
ª
O
h
h
h
h
ª
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13, Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.130 fine
[Italian: ‘end’]
Indicates the end of the piece when it is not the written end of the music.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 33
See also
Section 1.79 [da capo], page 20, Section 1.81 [dal segno], page 21.
1.131 fingering
ES: digitaci´on, I: diteggiatura, F: doigt´e, D: Finger sat z , NL: vingerzetting, DK : fingers æt n in g,
S: fingers¨attning, FI: sormitus.
Figures to the side or above the note that methodically indicate whi ch fingers to use while
playing a passage.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.132 flag
ES: corchete, I: coda (uncinata), bandiera, F: crochet, D : Fahne, F¨ahnchen, NL: vlaggetje, DK:
fane, S: flagga, FI: lippu, viiri.
Ornament at the end of the stem of a note use d for notes with values less than a quarter
note. The number of flags determines the note value.
16th
v
h
32nd
w
h
64th
x
h
8th
u
h
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.133 flageolet
ES: arm´onico, I: armonico, F: flageolet, D: Flageolett, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: flageolet-¨a¨ani.
An articulation for string players that means the note or passage is to be played in harmonics.
Also:
• A d uc t flu te similar to the r ec ord er .
• An organ stop of flute scale at 1’ or 2’ pitch.
See also
Section 1.22 [articulation], page 7, Section 1.155 [harmonics], page 38.
1.134 flat
ES: bemol, I: bemolle, F: b´emol, D: B, NL: mol, DK: b, S: bef¨ortecken, FI: alennusmerkki.
See also
Section 1.7 [accidental], page 2.
1.135 forefall
See also
Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 34
1.136 forte
ES: forte, fuerte, I: forte, F: forte, D: forte, laut, NL: for t e, DK: forte, S: forte, FI: forte,
voimakkaasti.
[Italian: ‘loud’]
Abbreviated f . Variants include:
• mezzo forte, medium loud (notated mf ),
• fortissimo, very loud (notated ff ).
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.137 fourth
ES: cuarta, I: quarta, F: quarte, D: Quarte, NL: kwart, DK: kvart, S: kvart, FI: kvartti.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.138 Frenched score
ES: p art i t u ra a la francesa, I: partitura senza i righi vuoti, F: partition `a la fran¸caise, D : Orch-
esterpartitur ohne leere Syst e me, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: partituuri ilman tyhji¨a nuottiviivastoja.
A ‘condensed’ score, produced by omitting staves for instruments that are not playing at the
moment, and by moving up additional systems from following pages to take up the space thus
liberated, which reduces the total number of pages used to print the work.
The specific rules for ‘frenching’ a score differ from publisher t o publisher. If you are produc-
ing scores for eventual publication by a commercial publisher , you may wish to procure a copy
of their style manual.
See also
Section 1.139 [Frenched staff], page 34.
1.139 Frenched staff
ES: pentagrama a la francesa, I: rigo temporaneo, F: port´ee `a la fran¸caise, D: zeitweiliges Noten-
system, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: karsittu nuotinnus.
[Pl. French ed staves] Analogous to Frenched scores ( q. v ), a Frenched staff has unneeded
measures or sections removed. This is useful for producing, for example, an ossi a staff.
See also
Section 1.229 [ossia], page 58.
1.140 Frenched staves
Plural of Section 1.139 [Frenched staff], page 34.
1.141 fugue
ES: fuga, I: fuga, F: fugue, D: Fuge, NL: fuga, DK: fuga, S: fuga, FI: fuuga.
See also
Section 1.72 [counterpoint], page 19.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 35
1.142 functional harmony
ES: armon´ıa funcional, I: armonia funzionale, F: ´etude des functions , D: Funktionslehre, NL:
functionele harmonie, DK: fu nk t i on san aly s e, funkti ons har mon i k, S: funktionsl¨ara, FI: harmo-
niaj¨arjestelm¨a.
A sy s t em of harmon ic analysis.
It is based on the idea that, in a gi ven key, there are only three functionally different chords:
tonic (T, th e chord on the first note of the scale), subdominant (S, the chord on the fourth
note), and domi n ant (D, t h e chord on the fifth note). Others are c ons id er ed to be variants of
the base chords. A few examples among many others are the tonic, subdominant or dominant
of the parallel minor scale, or the incomplete dominant seventh chord.
..
.
D
.
.
.
S
.
.
D
7
.
.
.
.
TpT
.
.
.
Dp
.
.
.
Sp
.
.
.
See also
Section 1.95 [dominant], page 25, Section 1.162 [incomplete dominant seventh chord], page 41,
Section 1.297 [subdominant], page 74, Section 1.320 [tonic], page 78.
1.143 G
• ES: sol
• I: sol
• F: sol
• D: G, g
• NL: g
• DK: g
• S: g
• FI: G, g
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
1.144 G clef
ES: clave de sol, I: chiave di sol, F: clef de sol, D: G-Schl¨ussel , Violinschl¨ussel, NL: G-sleutel,
DK: g-nøgle, S: g-klav, FI: G-avain.
A clef symbol that indicates G above middle C. Used on the first and second note l i n es. A
digit 8 above the clef symbol indicates that the notes must be played an octave higher while
8 below the clef symbol indicates playing or singing an octave lower (used most frequently to
notate the tenor part in modern choral scores).
octave up
8
.
.
8
octave down
.
french violin clef violin clef
.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 36
1.145 glissando
ES: glissando, I: glissando, F: glissando, D: Glissando, NL: glissando, DK: glissando, S: glissando,
FI: glissando, liukuen.
Letting the pitch slide fluently from one note to the other.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.146 grace notes
ES: notas de adorno, I: abbellimenti, F: ornement, fioriture, D: Verzierungen, Vorschl¨age, Vor-
schlagsnoten, NL: versieringen, DK: forsiringer, S: ornament, FI: korunuotit.
Notes printed in small types to indicate that their t i me values are not counted in the rhythm
of the bar.
See also
Section 1.6 [acciaccatura], page 2, Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6, Section 1.210 [mor-
dent], page 53, Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
1.147 grand staff
ES: sist em a de piano, I: accollatura, F: syst`eme [de port´ees], accolade, D: Akkolade, Klaviersys-
tem, NL: piano sy st ee m, DK: klaversystem, S: ackolad, b¨ojd klammer, FI: kaksoisnuottiviivasto.
A combination of two staves with a brace. Usually used for piano music.
See also
Section 1.39 [brace], page 10.
1.148 grave
ES: grave, I: grave, F: grave, lent, D: Grave, Langsam, NL: grave, ernstig, DK: grave, S: grave,
FI: grave, raskaasti.
[Italian] Slow, solemn.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.149 gruppetto
See also
Section 1.332 [turn], page 81.
1.150 H
• ES: si
• I: si
• F: si
• D: H, h
• NL: b
• DK: h
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 37
• S: h
• FI: H, h
Letter name used f or B natural in German and Scandinavian usage. In the standard usage
of these countries, B means B flat.
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87, Section 1.27 [B], page 8.
1.151 hairpin
Graphical version of the crescendo and decrescendo dynamic marks.
N .
ª
. N
See also
Section 1.74 [crescendo], page 19, Section 1.82 [decrescendo], page 21.
1.152 half note
• UK: minim,
• ES: blanca,
• I: minima,
• F: blanche,
• D: Halbe, halbe Note,
• NL: halve noot,
• DK: halvnode,
• S: halvnot,
• FI: puolinuotti.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.153 half rest
• UK: minim rest,
• ES: silencio de blanca,
• I: pausa di minima,
• F: demi-pause,
• D: halbe Pause,
• NL: halve, rust,
• DK: halvnodespause,
• S: halvpaus,
• FI: puolitauko.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 38
1.154 harmonic cadence
ES: cadencia (arm´onica), I: cadenza (armonica), F: cadence harmonique, D: Schlusskadenz, NL:
harmonische cadens, DK: harmonisk kaden ce, S: (harmonisk) kadens, FI: harmoninen kadenssi.
A se q ue nc e of chords that termi nat e s a musical phrase or sect ion .
N
N
D
h
h
h
h
N
T
N
ª
T
ª
h
h
h
h
Y
S
h
h
h
h
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35.
1.155 harmonics
ES: arm´onicos, sonidos aflautados, I: armonici, F: flageolet, sons harmoniques, D: Flageolett-
T¨one, NL: ?, DK: ? , S: ?, F I: har mon i se t ¨a¨anet, huilu¨a¨ane t .
The general class of pit ches produc ed by sounding the second or higher harmonic of a tone
producer: string, column of air, and so on.
On stringed instruments, these pitches sound rather flute-like; hence, their name in languages
other than English. They are produced by lightly touching the string at a node for the desired
mode of v ib r at ion wh il e i t i s being bowed or plucked.
For instruments of the violin fami ly, there are two types of harmoni cs : natural harmonics,
which are those played on the open string; and artificial harmonics, wh i ch are produced on
stopped strings.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.156 harmony
ES: armon´ıa, I: armonia, F: har mon i e, D: Harmonie, Zusammenklang, NL: harmonie, DK:
samklang, S: samklang, FI: harmonia, yhteissointi.
Tones soundi n g simultaneously. Two note harmon ie s fall into the categories consonances and
dissonances.
Consonances:
sixth
.
.
fifth
.
. .
.
octave
.
.
tenthfourth
..
unison
.
.
third
.
.
Dissonances:
ninth
.
.
seventh
.
..
.
second
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 39
For har mony that uses t h re e or more not e s, see S ec t i on 1.52 [chord], page 13.
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13.
1.157 hemiola
ES: hemiolia, I: emiolia, (rarely hemiola or emiola), F: h´emiole, D: Hemiole, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?,
FI: hemioli, 3/2 -suhde.
[Greek: in Latin, sesquialtera] The ratio 3:2.
Most freq u ently, a proportion (q. v. ) of thre e notes of equal value in the time normally
occupied by two. The result in g rhythm can be expressed in modern ter ms as a s ub st i t ut i on (for
example) of a bar in 3/2 for one of 6/4, or of a bar in 3/4 for one of 6/8. D u ri n g the Baroque
era, hemiola is most frequently as a special effect (or affect) at cadences.
For ex amp l e, this phrase in 6/4 ti me
N P
.
N
N
P
6
4
N
P
N
may be thou ght of having alternating ti me sign at ur e s
P
6
4
.
N
N
P
N
P
6
4
N
3
2
N
and is therefore a polymeter (second definition) of considerable antiquity.
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47, Section 1.198 [meter], page 49, Section 1.242 [poly-
meter], page 61, Section 1.249 [proportion], page 62.
1.158 high bass clef
ES: ?, I: ?, F: clef de basse haute, D: hoher Bassschl¨ussel, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
Beginning in 18th c entury the h i gh bass clef used in French Horn parts for the lowest pitches.
This usage of the F clef was then passed down from the Fre nch Horn t o the Basset Horn and
then to the Bass Clarinet. It l ooks identical to the standard bass clef, but is pitched an octave
higher – octavation i n di c at ors on cl e fs appear ed at th e beginn i ng of th e 20th C entury.
In LilyPond, the most straightforward way to make a high bass cl ef is to print the modern
version \clef "bass^8" but without the 8;
<<
\new Staff {
\clef treble { g4 b d' g' }
}
\new Staff \with { \omit ClefModifier }
{ \clef "bass^8" { g4 b d' g' } }
>>
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 40
h
h
h
h
h
ª
ª
h
h
h
See also
Section 1.124 [F clef], page 31, Section 1.34 [bass cl ef], page 9.
1.159 homophony
ES: homofon´ıa, I: omofonia, F: homophonie, D: Homophonie, NL: homofonie, DK: homofoni, S:
homofoni, FI: homofonia, yksi¨a¨anisyys.
Music in which one voice leads melodically supported by the other voices in the same rhythm
(more or less). In contrast to polyphony.
See also
Section 1.245 [polyphony], page 61.
1.160 hook
See also
Section 1.132 [flag], page 33.
1.161 hymn meter
ES: ?, I: metrica dell’inno, F: ?, D: Silbenanzahl, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: s¨akeiden tavum¨a¨ar¨at.
A group or list of numbers that indicate the number of syllables in a l in e of a hymn’s verse.
Different hymnals have different ways of noting the hymn meter: for example, consider a hymn
that has four lines in two couplets alternating regularly between eight and seven syllables. The
English Hymnal notes th i s as 87. 87. Other hymnals may note it as 8787, 87.87, or 8 7 8 7.
Some frequently-used hymn meters have traditional names:
• 66.86 is called Short Meter (abbreviated SM or S.M.)
• 86.86 is called Common Meter (CM or C.M.)
• 88.88 is called Long Meter (LM or L.M.)
Some hymns and their tunes are doubled versions of a simpler meter: for easier reading, a
hymn with a meter of 87.87.87.87 is usually written 87.87D. The traditional names above also
have doub l ed versi on s:
• 66.86.66.86 is Double Short Meter (DSM or D.S.M.)
• 86.86.86.86 is Double Common Meter (DCM or D.C.M.)
• 88.88.88.88 is Double Long Meter (DLM or D.L.M.)
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 41
1.162 incomplete dominant se venth chord
ES: ?, I: accordo di settima dominante incompleto, F: accord de sep t i`eme de dominante incom-
plet, D: verk¨urzter Dominantseptakkord, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
A dominant se vent h chord where the root tone is removed. The re mai n in g three t on es build
a d im i ni sh ed t ri ad .
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13, Section 1.97 [dominant seventh chord], page 25, Section 1.142
[functional harmony], page 35.
1.163 interval
ES: intervalo, I: intervallo, F: intervall e, D : Intervall, NL: interval, DK : interval, S: intervall, F I:
intervalli, kahden s¨avelen korkeusero.
Difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals may be diminished, minor, perfect, major,
or augmented. The augmented fourth and the diminished fifth are identical (or enhar mo nic) on
an equal-tempered twelve-tone scale and are called tritonus because they consist of three whole
tones. The addition of such two intervals forms an octave.
.
.
aug
second second
.
.
maj
.
.
dim
third
..
aug
unison
ª
..
unison
.
. .
min
second second
dim
.
fourth
.
.
aug
per
.
.
fourth
dim
.
.
fifth
.
.
maj
third third
8
.
.
min
.
.
dim
fourth
.
.
aug
third
.
.
aug
sixth
.
.
maj
sixth
.
.
dim
seventh
.
.
aug
fifth fifth
15
.
.
per
min
.
.
sixth
sixth
.
.
dim
.
.
per
octave
.
.
dim
octave
.
.
aug
octave
.
min
seventh
. .
.
maj
seventh
22
.
aug
seventh
.
See also
Section 1.119 [enharmonic], page 29, Section 1.341 [whole tone], page 83.
1.164 inversion
ES: inversi´on, I: rivolto, F: renversement, D: Umkehrung, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: k¨a¨ann¨os.
When a ch or d sounds with a bass note that differs from the root of the chord, it is said
to be inverted. The number of inversions that a chord can have is one fewer than the number
of constitue nt notes. For example, triads (which have three constituent notes) can have three
positions, two of which are inversions:
Root posit i on
The root note is in the bass, and above that are the thir d and the fifth. A triad
built on the first scale degree, for example, is marked I.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 42
First inversion
The third is in the bass, and above it are the fifth and the root. Thi s creates an
interval of a sixth and a third above the bass note, and so is marked in figure d
Roman n ot at i on as 6/3. This is commonly abbreviated to I6 (or Ib) since the sixth
is the characteristic interval of the inversion, and so always implies 6/3.
Second inversion
The fifth is in the bass, and above it are the root and the third. This creates an
interval of a sixth and a fourth above the bass note, and so is marked as I6/4 or Ic.
Second inversion is the most unstable chord position.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.165 inverted interval
ES: intervalo invertido, I: intervallo rivolto, F: intervalle renvers´e, D: umgekehrtes Intervall, NL:
interval i nve rs i e, DK: omvendingsinterval, S: intervallets omv¨andning, FI: k¨a¨anteisintervalli.
The difference between an interval and an octave.
fourth
.
.
sixth
.
.
fifth
.
.
seventh
.
.
second
.
.
third
.
.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.166 just intonation
ES: entonaci´on justa, I: intonazione giusta, F: i ntonation juste, D: reine Stimmung, NL: reine
stemming, DK: ren stemning, S: ren st¨amning, FI: puhdas viritys.
Tuning system in which the notes are obtained by adding and subtracting natural fifths and
thirds.
See also
Section 1.307 [temperament], page 76.
1.167 key
ES: tonalidad, I: tonalit`a, F: tonalit´e, D: Tonart, NL: toonsoort, DK: toneart, S: tonar t , FI:
tonaliteetti.
According to th e 12 tones of the chromatic scale there are 12 keys, one on c, one on c-sharp,
etc.
See also
Section 1.54 [chromatic scale], page 14, Section 1.168 [key signature], page 42.
1.168 key signature
ES: armadura (de la clave), I: armatura di chiave, F: armure, armature [de la cl´e], D: Vorzeichen,
Tonart, NL: toonsoort (voortekens), DK: faste fortegn, S: tonartssignatur, FI: s¨avellajiosoitus.
The sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff indicating the key of the music.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 43
See also
Section 1.7 [accidental], page 2.
1.169 kievan notation
A form of medieval music notation used pr ed omi nantly in the chantbooks of the Russian Or-
thodox Church as well as Carpatho- Rus si an and Ukrainian jurisdictions of Orthodoxy and
Byzantine-rite Catholicism. It is characterized by the square shape of its noteheads.
1.170 laissez vibrer
ES: dejar vibrar, I: laissez vibrer, F: laissez vibrer, D: Laissez vibrer, schwingen lassen, NL: ?,
DK: ?, S: ?, FI: antaa v¨arist¨a.
[French: ‘Let vibrate’] Most frequently associated with h ar p parts. Marked l.v . in the score.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.171 largo
ES: largo, I: largo, F: largo, large, ample, D: Largo, Langsam, Breit, NL: largo, DK: largo, S:
largo, FI: largo, hitaasti, leve¨asti.
[Italian: ‘wide’.] Ver y sl ow in tempo, us ual l y c ombined wi th great exp r ess i veness. Larghetto
is less slow than largo.
1.172 leading note
ES: sensible, I: sensibile, F: (note) sensible, D: Leitton, NL: leidtoon, DK: ledetone, S: ledt on,
FI: johtos¨avel.
The seventh scal e degree, a semitone below t h e tonic; so called because of i t s strong tendency
to ‘lead up’ (resolve upwards) to the tonic scale degree.
See also
Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67, Section 1.270 [semitone], page 68.
1.173 ledger line
ES: l´ınea adicional, I: tagli addizionali, F: ligne suppl´ementaire, D: Hilfslinie, NL: hulplijntje,
DK: hjælpelinie, S: hj¨alplinje, FI: apuviiva.
A l ed ger l in e is an ex t en si on of t he st aff.
.
.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 44
1.174 legato
ES: legato, I: legato, F: legato, li´e, D: legato, gebunden, NL: legato, DK: legato, S: legato, FI:
legato, sitoen.
To be performed (a) without any perceptible interruption between the notes, unlike (b)
leggiero or non-legato, ( c) por t ato, or (d) staccato.
h
h
n
n
d
c
n
h
h
n
h
n
h
h
h
b
h
a
p n
h
p
h
p
h
See also
Section 1.290 [staccato], page 72.
1.175 legato curve
See also
Section 1.284 [slur], page 71, Section 1.174 [legato], page 44.
1.176 leger line
See also
Section 1.173 [ledger line], page 43.
1.177 ligature
ES: ligadura, I: ligatura, F: ligature, DE: Ligatur, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ligatu ur a.
A ligature is a cohere nt graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures
originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation around the 9th century to
denote ascending or descend in g sequences of notes. In early notation, ligatures were used for
monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very s oon denoted also the way of performance in t he
sense of articulation. With the invention of the metric system of the whi t e mensural notation,
the need for ligatures to denote such patterns disappeared.
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47.
1.178 lilypond
UK: lily pond, ES: estanque de nen´ufares, I : stagno del gi gl io, F: ´etang de n´enuphars, ´etang de
nymph´eas, D: Seerosenteich, NL: lelievijver, DK: liliedam, S: liljedamm, FI: liljal am pi .
A pond wi t h li li e s float i n g in it.
Also, the name of a music typesetting program.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 45
1.179 line
ES: l´ınea, I: linea, F: ligne, D: Linie, Notenlini e, NL: lijn, DK : nodeli n ie , S: notlinje, FI: viiva,
nuottiviiva.
See also
Section 1.291 [staff], page 72.
1.180 loco
ES: en su lugar, I: loco, F: loco, D: loco, NL: ?, D K : ?, S: ?, FI: kirjoitetussa ¨a¨anenkorkeudessa.
[Italian: ‘place’] Instruction to play the following passage at the written pitch. Cancels octave
mark (q.v.).
See also
Section 1.225 [octave mark], page 57, Section 1.226 [octave marking], page 57.
1.181 long appoggiatura
ES: apoyatura larga, I: appoggiatura lunga, F: appoggiature longue, D: Vorhal t , NL: Lange
voorslag, DK: langt forslag, S: l˚angt f¨orslag, FI: pitk¨a ap poggiat ur a, pitk¨a etuhele.
See also
Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6.
1.182 longa
• US: long, longa,
• ES: longa,
• I: longa,
• F: longa, longue,
• D: Longa,
• NL: longa,
• DK: longa,
• S: longa,
• FI: longa.
Note value: twice the length of a breve.
Ú
See also
Section 1.43 [breve], page 11, Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.183 lyric tie
ES: ligadura de letra, I: legatura del testo, F: ligat ur e de mots, D: Textbindung, NL: ?, DK: ?,
S: ?, FI: sidonta sanoituksessa.
See also
Section 1.116 [elision], page 29.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 46
1.184 lyrics
ES: letra (de la canci´on), I: testo, F: paroles, D: Liedtext, Gesangst ex t , NL: liedtekst, D K : ?, S:
?, FI: sanoitus.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.185 major
ES: mayor, I: maggiore, F: [mode] majeur, D: Dur, NL: majeur, DK: dur, S: dur, FI: duuri.
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.186 major interval
ES: intervalo mayor, I: intervallo maggiore, F: intervalle majeur, D: großes Intervall, NL: groot
interval, DK: stort interval, S: stort intervall, FI: suuri intervall i .
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.187 maxima
ES: m´axima, I: m axi ma, F: maxima, maxi me, D: Maxima, NL: ?, DK : ?, S: ?, FI: maxima.
Note value: twice the length of a longa.
The maxima is the largest duration in use dur i ng the 15th and 16th centuri es . Like the longa,
the maxima can be either two or three times as long as the longa (cal l ed binary and ternary,
respectively). By the late 15th century, most composers used the smaller proportion by default.
See also
Chapter 2 [Duration names notes and rests], page 84, Section 1.182 [longa], page 45,
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.188 meantone temperament
ES: afinaci´on mesot ´onica, I: accordatura mesotonica, F: temp´erament m´esotonique, D: mi t -
telt¨onige Sti mmung, NL: middenstemming, middento on st e mmi n g, DK: middeltonetemperat ur ,
S: medeltonstemperatur, FI: keskis¨avelviritys.
Temperament yielding acoustically pure thirds by decreasing the natural fifth by 16 cents.
Due to the non-circular ch ar act er of t hi s temperament only a limited set of keys are playable.
Used for tuning keyboard instruments for performance of pre-1650 music.
See also
Section 1.50 [cent], page 13, Section 1.307 [temperament], page 76.
1.189 measure
ES: comp´as, I: mi su r a, b at t ut a, F : mesu r e, D: Takt, NL: maat, DK: t ak t , S: t ak t , FI : tahti.
A grou p of beats (units of musical time) the first of which bears an acce nt. Such groups in
numbers of two or more recur consistently throughout the composition and are separated from
each ot h er by bar lines.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 47
See also
Section 1.30 [bar line], page 8, Section 1.36 [beat], page 9, Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.190 measure repeat
See also
Section 1.233 [percent repeat], page 59.
1.191 mediant
ES: mediante, I: mediante, modale, F: m´ediante, NL: mediant, D: Mediante, DK: mediant, S:
mediant, FI: keskis¨avel.
• The third scale degree.
• A chord having its base tone a third from that of another chord. For example, the tonic
chord may be re pl ace d by its lower mediant (variant tonic).
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13, Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.258 [rela-
tive key], page 65.
1.192 melisma
ES: melisma, I: melisma, F: m´eli sme , vocal i se , D: Melisma, NL: melisma, DK: ?, S: ?, FI:
melisma, laulettavan tavun s¨avelkuvio.
A melisma (Greek: plural melismata) is a group of notes or tones sung on one syllable,
especially as applied to liturgical chant.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.193 melisma line
ES: l´ınea de melisma, I: linea del melisma, F: trait de m´elisme, trait de tenue, D: F¨ulllinie, NL:
?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: melismaviiva.
See also
Section 1.122 [extender line], page 30.
1.194 melodic cadence
See also
Section 1.47 [cadenza], page 12.
1.195 mensural notation
ES: notaci ´on mensural, I: notazione mensurale, F: notation mensural e , D: Mensuralnotation,
NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: mensuraalinuotinnus.
A system of duration notation whose pri n ci pl e s were first established in the mid-13th century,
and that (with various changes) remained in use until about 1600. As such, it is the basis for
the notation of rhythms in Western musical notation.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 48
Franco of Cologne (ca. 1250) is credited with the first systematic explanation of the notation’s
principles, so the notation of this earliest per iod is called ‘Franconian’. Franco’s system made
use of three note values – long, breve, and semibreve – each of which was normally equivalent
to three of the next lower note value.
Then, in the first half of the 14th century, Philippe de Vitry and Jehan de Murs added several
note values (the minim, semiminim and fusa) and extended Franco’s principles to govern the
relationship betwe en these values. They also put the duple division of note values on an equal
footing with the earlier (preferred) triple division.
TODO: continue description of French and Ital ian black notation, and the relationship be-
twixt them.
White or void mensural notation
In the 15th c entury, hollow (or void) notes began to subs t i tu t e for the earlier solid black ones,
which were then free to assume the function of red (or colored) n ot es in the earlier not at ion . . . .
TODO: add to definition (including summary info on proportional notation)
See also
Section 1.24 [augmentation], page 7, Section 1.88 [diminution], page 24, Section 1.177 [liga-
ture], page 44, Section 1.249 [proportion], page 62.
1.196 mensuration sign
ES: signo de mensuraci´on, I: ind i caz ion e mensurale, F: signe de men su rat i on , D: Mensurzeichen,
NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
The an ces t or of the time signature, mensuration signs were used to indi cat e the relation-
ship between two sets of note durations—specifically, the ratio of breves to semibreves ( cal l ed
tempus), and of semibreves to minims (called pr ol at io).
Each ratio was represented with a single single sign, and was either three-to-one (ternary) or
two-to-one (binary), as in modern music notation. Unlike modern music notation, the ternary
ratio was the preferred one—applied to the tempus, it was called perfect, and was represented
by a complete circle; applied to the prolatio, it was called major and was represented by a dot
in the middle of the sign. The binary ratio applied to the tempus was called imperfect, and was
represented by an incomplete circle; applied to prolat io, it was called minor and was represented
by the lack of an internal dot. There are four possible combinations, which can be represented in
modern time s i gnat u re s with and without reducti on of note values. (These signs ar e hard-coded
in LilyPond with reduction.)
perfect
tempus
with major
prolatio
Indicated by a complete circle with an internal dot. In modern time signatures, this
equals:
• 9/4, with reduction or
• 9/2, without reduction
perfect tempus and minor prolatio
Indicated by a complete circle without an internal dot. In modern time signatures,
this equals:
• 3/2, with reduction or
• 3/1, without reduction
imperfect tempus and major prolatio
Indicated by an incomplete circle with an internal dot. In modern time signatures,
this equals:
• 6/4, with reduction or
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 49
• 6/2, without reduction
imperfect tempus and minor prolatio
Indicated by an incomplete circle without an i nternal dot. In modern time s i gna-
tures, this equals:
• 4/4, with reduction or
• 2/1, without reduction
The last mensuration sign looks like common-time because it is, with note values r ed uc ed from
the original semibreve to a moder n quarter note. Being doubly imperfect, this sign represented
the (theoretically) least-preferred mensuration, but i t was actually used f ai r ly of t en .
This system extended to the ratio of longer note values to each other:
• maxima to longa, called:
•
modus maximorum
,
• modus major, or
• maximodus)
• longa to breve, called:
• modus longarum,
• modus minor, or
•
modus
In the absence of any other indication, these modes were assumed to be binary. The mensu-
ration signs only ind ic at ed tempus and prolatio, so composers needed another way to indicate
these longer ratios (called modes. Around the middle of the 15th century started to use groups
of rests at the beginning of the staff, preceding the mensuration sign.
Two mensuration signs have sur v ived to the present day: the C-shaped sign, which originally
designated tempus imperfectum and prolatio minor now stands for common time; and the
slashed C, which designated the same with diminution now stands for cut time (essentially, it
has not lost its original meaning).
See also
Section 1.88 [diminution], page 24, Section 1.249 [proportion], page 62, Section 1.318 [time
signature], page 78.
1.197 mensurstrich
ES: ?, I: ?, F: ?, D: Mensurstrich, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
A b ar li ne dr awn between staves.
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47.
1.198 meter
ES: tiempo, comp´as, I: tempo, misura, F: indication de mesure, mesure, D : Taktart, Metrum,
NL: maatsoort, DK: taktart, S: taktart, FI: aika-arvo.
The pattern of note values and accents in a composition or a sect ion thereof. There are
a couple ways to classify ‘traditional’ meter (i . e. , not polymeter): by grouping beats and by
subdividing the primary beat.
By grouping beats:
• duple: groups of two.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 50
• triple: groups of three.
• quadruple: groups of four. A special case of duple meter .
• quintuple: groups of five beats.
• sextuple meter: groups of six. A special case of:
• duple meter, subdivided in three; or
• triple meter, subdivided in two.
• septuple meter: groups of seven.
• and so on .
Other than triple meter and its subdivided variants (see below), m et er s that feature odd
groupings of beats (e.g., quintuple or septuple meter) are not frequently used prior to the 20th
Century.
By subdividing the primary beat:
• simple: subdivided in groups of two.
• duple: 2/2, 2/4, 2/8
• triple: 3/2, 3/4, 3/8
• quadruple: 4/2, 4/4 (also called common time), 4/8
• compound: subdivided in groups of three.
• duple: 6/8
• triple: 9/8
• quadruple: 12/8
Time signatures are place d at th e beginning of a composition (or s ec ti on ) to in d ic at e the
meter. For instance, a piece written in simple triple meter with a beat on each quarter note
is conventionally written with a time signatu re of 3/4. Here are some combinations of the two
classifications above:
Simple duple meter (F.J. Haydn, 1732-1809; or a Croatian folk tune):
h
h
h
h
h
Nh
h
h
h
2
4
P
h
h
h
h
Simple triple meter:
h
h
h
h
N
h
h
h
h
h
h
3
4
h
h
h
Simple quadruple meter (French folk tune, Au clair de la lune):
h
h
h
h
.hh
ª
h
Nh
N
Simple quintuple meter (B. Marcello, 1686-1739):
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
5
4
h
h
h
h
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 51
(Aside: this is an exampl e of Augenmusik: the accidentals are thus in the source, with sharps
in the accompaniment where the voice has flats and vice versa.)
Compound duple meter (unknown):
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
hh
h
6
8
h h
h
h
h
h
Compound triple meter (J.S. Bach, 1685-1750):
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
9
8
h
h h
hh
Compound quadruple meter (P. Yon, 1886-1943):
h
h
h
P
h
h
u
h
h
P
12
8
h
P
h
h
h
h
P
h
h
T
h
h
2
h
h
u
h
See also
Section 1.4 [accent], page 2, Section 1.157 [hemiola], page 39, Section 1.222 [note value],
page 55, Section 1.318 [time signature], page 78.
1.199 metronome
ES: metr´onomo, I: met ron omo, F: m´etronome, D : Metronom, NL: metronoom, DK: metronom,
S: metronom, FI: metronomi.
Device used to indicate the exact tempo of a piece.
Invented ca. 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkler of Amsterdam, but takes its n ame f rom
Johann Nepomuk M¨alzel, who copied the device, added a scale of tempo divisions, and patented
it as a ‘metronome’. The inevit ab le lawsuit that followed acknowledged Winkler as the creator,
but by then M¨alzel had already sold many of them, and people had taken to calling it a M¨alzel
Metronome.
See also
Section 1.200 [metronome mark], page 51.
1.200 metronome mark
ES: indic aci ´on metron´omica, I: indi caz i one metronomica, F: indication m´et r onom iq u e, D:
Metronomangabe, NL: metronoom aanduiding, DK: metronomtal, S: metronomangivelse, FI:
metronomiosoitus.
Exact t em po indication (in beats per minute). Abbreviated M.M. or MM, which is short for
M¨alzels M et r on om (or M¨alzel’ s Mark , an gli ce).
See also
Section 1.199 [metronome], page 51.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 52
1.201 metronomic indication
See also
Section 1.200 [metronome mark], page 51.
1.202 mezzo
ES: mezzo, I: mezzo, F: mezzo, D: mezzo, etwas, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: kohtalaisen, melko.
[Italian: ‘medium’]
Used to qualify other indications, such as:
• Dynamics
• mezzo piano is ‘medium quiet’ (that is, not as quiet as piano)
• mezzo forte is ‘medium loud’ (that is, not as loud as forte)
• Voice
• Pitchwise, a mezzo-soprano’s voice lies between that of contraltos and sopranos
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.203 mezzo-soprano
ES: mezzosoprano, I: mezzo-soprano, F: mezzo-soprano, D: Mezzosopran , NL: mezzosopraan,
DK: mezzosopran, S: mezzosopran, FI: mezzosopraano.
The female voice between soprano and contralto.
See also
Section 1.289 [soprano], page 72, Section 1.70 [contralto], page 18.
1.204 middle C
ES: do central, I: do centrale, F: do central, do 3, D: eingestrichenes c, NL: centrale c, DK:
enstreget c, S: ettstruket c, FI: keski-C.
First C below the 440 Hz A.
.
.
.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.205 minor
ES: menor, I: minore, F: (mode) mineur, D: Moll, NL: mineur, DK: mol, S: moll, FI: molli.
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 53
1.206 minor interval
ES: intervalo menor, I: intervallo minore, F: intervalle mineur, D: kleines Intervall, NL: klein
interval, DK: lille interval, S: litet intervall, FI: pieni intervalli.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.207 mixolydian mode
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.208 mode
ES: modo, I: modo, F: mode, D: Kirchentonart, Modus, NL: modus, DK: skala, S: modus, skala,
FI: moodi, kirkkos¨avelasteikko.
See also
Section 1.56 [church mode], page 14, Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.209 modulation
ES: modulaci´on, I: modulazione, F: modulation, D: Modulation, NL: modulatie, DK: modula-
tion, S: modulering, FI: modulaatio, s¨avellajin vaihdos.
Moving f rom one Section 1.167 [key], page 42, t o another. For example, the second subject
of a Section 1.287 [sonata form], page 72, movement modulates to the dominant key if t h e key
is major an d to th e S ect i on 1.258 [r el at i ve key], page 65, if the key is minor.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.210 mordent
I: mordente, F: mordant, D: Mordent, NL: mordent, DK: mordent, S: mordent, FI: mordent,
korukuvio.
See also
Section 1.6 [acciaccatura], page 2, Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6, Section 1.146 [grace
notes], page 36, Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
1.211 motif
See also
Section 1.212 [motive], page 53.
1.212 motive
ES: motivo, I: inciso, F: motif, incise, D: Motiv, NL: motief, DK: motiv, S: moti v , FI: teema,
s¨avelaihe.
The briefest intelligible and self-contained fragment of a musical theme or subject.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 54
h
h
h
h
h
h
v
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.213 movement
ES: movimiento, I: movimento, F: mouvement, D: Satz, NL: deel, DK: sats, S: sats, FI: osa.
Greater musical works like Section 1.303 [symphony], page 75, and Section 1.286 [sonata],
page 71, most often consist of several – more or less – independent pieces called movements.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.214 multi-measure rest
ES: compases de espera, silencio multicomp´as, I: pausa multipla, F: pause multiple, mesure
`a compter, NL: meermaats rust, D: mehrtaktige Pause, Kirchenpause, DK: flertaktspause, S:
flertaktspaus, FI: usean tahdin mittainen tauko.
Multi-measure rests are conventionally typeset with a combination of longa, breve and whole
rests for shorter and a long horizontal bar for longer spans of rest, with a number above to
indicate the duration (in measures) of the rest. The former style is c all e d ‘Kirchenpausen’ in
German, as a reminiscence of its use in Renaissance vocal polyphony.
.
122
3
ª
. .
See also
Section 1.182 [longa], page 45, Section 1.43 [breve], page 11.
1.215 natural
ES: becuadro, I: bequadro, F: b´ecarre, D: Aufl¨osungszeichen , NL: herstellingsteken, DK: op-
løsningstegn, S: ˚aterst¨allningstecken, FI: palautusmerkki.
See also
Section 1.7 [accidental], page 2.
1.216 neighbor tones
ES: tonos vecinos, I: nota di volta, F: tons voisins, D: ?, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
See also
Section 1.6 [acciaccatura], page 2, Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6, Section 1.146 [grace
notes], page 36, Section 1.210 [mordent], page 53, Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 55
1.217 ninth
ES: novena, I: nona, F: neuvi`eme, D: None, NL: noon, DK: none, S: nona, FI: nooni.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.218 non-legato
See also
Section 1.174 [legato], page 44.
1.219 note
ES: nota, I: nota, F: note, D: Note, NL: noot, DK: node, S: not, FI: nuotti.
Notes are signs by means of which music is fixed in writing. The term is also used for
the sound indicate d by a note, and even for the key of the piano which produces the sound.
However, a clear distinction between t h e terms tone and Se ct i on 1.219 [note], page 55, is strongly
recommended. Briefly, one sees a note, and hears a tone.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.220 note head
ES: cabeza, I: testa, testina, capocchia, F: tˆete de note, D: Notenkopf, NL: nootballetje, DK:
nodehovede, S: nothuvud, FI: nuotin p¨a¨a.
A head-like sign which indicates pitch by its position on a staff provided with a clef , and
duration by a variety of shapes such as holl ow or black heads with or without stems, flags,
etc. For percussion instruments (often having no defined pitch) t h e note head may indicate the
instrument.
See also
Section 1.57 [clef], page 14, Section 1.132 [flag] , page 33, S ec t ion 1. 291 [st aff], page 72,
Section 1.293 [stem], page 73.
1.221 note names
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
1.222 note value
ES: valor, duraci´on, I: valore, durata, F: dur´ee, valeur (d’une note), D: Notenwert, NL: noot-
waarde, DK nodeværdi, S: notv¨arde, FI: nuotin aika-arvo.
Note values (durations) are measured as fract i ons —in modern u sage , one-half—of the next
higher note value. The longest duration in curr ent use is the breve (equal to two whole notes),
but sometimes (especi al l y in music dating from the Baroque era or earlier) the longa (four whole
notes) or maxima (eight whole notes) may be found.
As used in mensural n ot at i on, this fraction was more flexi bl e : it could al so be one-third the
higher note value. Composers indicated which proport ion s to use with various signs—two of
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 56
which sur v i ve to the present day: the C-shaped sign for common ti me, and the slashed C for
alla breve or cut time.
1/16
h
u
1/8
h
1/4
h
x
1/64
h
w
1/32
h
v
á
longa
breve
1/2
N
1/1
.
1/8
1/4
1/64
1/16 1/32
longa
¡
1/1
breve
1/2
An augmentation dot after a note increases its duration by half; a second dot increases it
by half of the first addition (that is, by a fourth of the original duration). More dots can be
used to add further halved fractions of the original note value (1/8, 1/16, etc.), but they are not
frequently encountered.
hh
v
N
hh hNh
u
N
hh
pointed
ª
P
h N
h
double pointed
PP
h
Alternatively note values may be subdivi d ed by other ratios. Most common is subdivision
by 3 (triplets) and 5 (quintuplets). Subdivisions by 2 (duplets) or 4 (quadruplets) of dotted notes
are also frequently used.
hhhhh
3
5
h h hh hh
triplets
ª
h hh
quintuplets
hh
hh h hh
2
4
hhhh hh
duplets
3
4
quadruplets
h
hh
See also
Section 1.62 [common time], page 16.
1.223 octavation
See also
Section 1.226 [octave marking], page 57.
1.224 octave
ES: octava, I: ott ava, F: octave, D: Oktave, NL: octaaf, DK: oktav, S: oktav, FI: oktaavi.
The interval of an oct ave, someti mes abb r ev i ate d 8ve.
For us es l i ke all’ott ava or 8va with an extender li n e or br acket , or loco see octave marking.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41, Section 1.226 [octave marking], page 57.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 57
1.225 octave mark
ES: indicaci´on de octava, I: segno di ottava, F: indication d’octave, D : Oktavierungszeichen , NL:
?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: oktaavamerkki.
The phrase, abbrev i at ion , or other mark used (with or without an extender line or bracket)
to indicate that the music is to be played in a different octave:
• 15ma: play two octaves h i ghe r
• 8va: play one octave higher
• 8vb : play one octave lower
• 8va (wri t t en below the passage): unusual, same as 8vb
• 15vb : play two oct aves lower
• 15va (wri t t en below the passage): unusual, same as 15vb
For longer passages, it may be more practical to mark the octave change at the be gi nn i ng
with a phrase (see the list below for examples), but without a bracket or extender line. Then,
when the music returns to the written pitch, the octave change i s canceled with the word loco
(q.v.).
To paral le l t h e li st above:
• 15ma: alla quindicesima (alta)
• 8va: all’ottava or ottava sopra
• 8vb : all’ottava bassa, ottava sotto
• 15vb : alla quindicesima (bassa)
In the phrases above, quindicesima is sometimes replaced with quindecima, which is Latin.
The music on an entire staff can be marked to be played in a di ffe re nt octave by putting a
small 8 or 15 above or below the clef at the beginning. This octave mark can be applied to any
clef, but it is most frequently used with the G and F clefs.
See also
Section 1.124 [F clef], page 31, Section 1.144 [G cle f], page 35, Section 1.180 [loco], page 45,
Section 1.226 [octave marking], page 57.
1.226 octave marking
ES: a la octava, I: all’ottava, F: octaviation, D: Oktavierung, NL: octaveren, DK: oktavering, S:
oktavering, FI: oktaavamerkint¨a.
The practice of marking music – an entire staff, a passage, etc. – to indicate that it is to be
played in a different octave. If applied to the cl ef at the beginning of the staff, all music on that
staff is to played at the indicated octave.
For a li s t of the s peci fi c mark s used , s ee S ect i on 1.225 [octave mark], p age 57.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41, Section 1.180 [loco], page 45, Section 1.224 [octave], page 56,
Section 1.225 [octave mark], page 57.
1.227 octave sign
See also
Section 1.225 [octave mark], page 57.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 58
1.228 ornament
ES: adorno, I: abbellimento, fioriture, F: agr´ement, ornement, D: Verzierung, Ornament, NL:
versiering, DK: forsiring, S: ornament, FI: koru, hele.
Most commonly used is the trill, the rapid alternation of a given note with the diatonic
Section 1.268 [second], page 68, above it. In the music from the middle of the 19th century and
onwards the trill is performed with the main note first while in the music from the preceding
baroque and classic periods the upper note is played first.
h
h h
h
P
P
h
s
h
h
h
h
h
.
5
.
h
s
h
h
h
h
Nh
N
pre-1850
ª
N
ª
P
P .
.
N
post-1850
h h
h
Other frequently used ornaments are the turn, the mordent, and the prall (i nvert ed mordent).
h
a
h
h
h
h
prall
h
h
h
N
N
h
h
h
h
h
h
u
h
h
N
h
turn
ª
h
ª
h
N
h
h
mordent
h
h
_
h
h
See also
Section 1.6 [acciaccatura], page 2, Section 1.20 [appoggiatura], page 6, Section 1.146 [grace
notes], page 36, Section 1.210 [mordent], page 53.
1.229 ossia
ES: ossia, I: ossia, F: ossia, alternative, D: Ossia, NL: alternatief, DK: ossia, S: ossi a, FI: ossia,
vaihtoehtoinen e si tystapa.
Ossia (otherwise) marks an alternative. It is an added staff or piano score, usually only a
few measures long, which presents another version of the music, for example for small hands.
See also
Compare: Section 1.75 [cue-notes], page 19.
1.230 part
ES: parte, particella, I: voce, parte, F: partie, D: St i mm e, NL: partij, DK: stem me, S: st¨amma,
FI: stemma, instrumenttiosuus.
• In instrumental or choral music, the music for a single instrument or voice.
• in contrapuntal music, a single melodic line in the contrapuntal web.
See also
Section 1.72 [counterpoint], page 19.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 59
1.231 pause
See also
Section 1.127 [fermata], page 32.
1.232 pennant
See also
Section 1.132 [flag], page 33.
1.233 percent repeat
LilyPond-specific term to indicate the repetition of a musical expression on a single staff, as
opposed to the more usual definition of repeat, which affec t s all parts. The musical expression
can be anything from a single note or note pat te r n to one or mor e measures. There are othe r
names for this symbol:
• simile mark
• slash mark, or slash repeat
• beat repeat
• measure (or multi-measure) repeat
N
Measure repeat
h
P
P
N
h
ª
Beat (or slash) repeat
h
h
h
Multi-measure repeat
h
P
P
h
5
h
h
See also
Section 1.259 [repeat], page 66, University of Vermont Music Dictionary (http://www.music.
vt.edu/musicdictionary/textr/Repeat.html).
1.234 percussion
ES: percusi´on, I: percussi oni , F: percussion, D: Schlagzeug, Schlagwerk, NL: slagwerk, DK:
slagtøj, S: slagverk, FI: ly¨om¨asoittimet.
A family of musi cal instruments which are played on by striking or shakin g. Percussi on instru-
ments commonly used in a symphony orchestra are kettledrums (I: timpani, D: Pauken), snare
drum, bass drum, tambourine, cymbals, Chinese gong (tam-tam), triangle , celesta, glockenspi el ,
and xylophone.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.235 perfect interval
ES: intervalo justo, I: intervallo giusto, F: intervalle juste, D: reines Intervall, NL: rein interval,
DK: rent interval, S: rent intervall, FI: puhdas intervalli.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 60
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.236 phrase
ES: frase, I: frase, F: phrase, D: Phrase, NL: frase, zin, DK: frase, S: fras, FI: fr aas i, l aus e.
A n at ur al di v is i on of th e mel odic li ne , c omp arab l e to a sentence of speech.
See also
Section 1.48 [caesura], page 12.
1.237 phrasing
ES: fraseo, I: fraseggio, F: phras´e, D: Phrasierung, NL: frasering, DK: frasering, S: frasering, FI:
fraseeraus, j¨asent¨aminen.
The clear rendering in musical performance of the phras es of the melody. Phrasing may be
indicated by a slur.
See also
Section 1.236 [phrase], page 60, Section 1.284 [slur], page 71.
1.238 piano
ES: piano, suave, I: piano, F: piano, D: pian o, leise, NL: piano, DK : piano, S: piano, FI, piano,
hiljaa.
piano (p) soft, pianissimo (pp) very soft, mezzo piano (mp) medium soft.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.239 pickup
ES: anacrusa, I: anacrusi, F: anacrouse, l ev´ee, D: Auftakt, NL: opmaat, DK: optakt, S: upptakt,
FI: kohotahti.
See also
Section 1.17 [anacrusis], page 5.
1.240 pitch
ES: altura, I: altezza, F: hauteur, D: Tonh¨ohe, NL: toonhoogte, DK: tonehøjde, S: tonh¨ojd, FI:
s¨avelkorkeus.
1. The perceived quality of a sound that is primarily a function of its fundamental frequency.
2. [FR. ton; DE. Ton; ES. tono] Any point on the continuum of musical pitch.
3. [FR. diapason; DE. Kammerton, Stimmung; ES. diapas´on] The standardized association of
a p art i cu l ar fr eq ue nc y w it h a part i cu lar pitch name, e.g., c’ = 256 Hz.
See also
Chapter 3 [Pitch names], page 87.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 61
1.241 pizzicato
ES: pizzicato, I: pizzicato, F: pizzi cat o, D: pizzicato, NL: pizzicato, ge t okkeld, DK: pizzicato, S:
pizzicato, FI: pizzicato, n¨app¨aillen.
A t echnique for s tr i n ged in st r um ents, abbr. pizz. To play by plucking the strings.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.242 polymeter
ES: comp´as polim´etri co, I: polimetria, F: polym´etrie, D: Polymetrie, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI:
monia tahtiosoituksia sis¨alt¨av¨a.
• The simultaneous use of two or more meters, in two or more parts.
• The successive use of different meters in one or more parts.
See also
Section 1.243 [polymetric], page 61, (adjective).
1.243 polymetric
ES: pol i m´etric o, I: pol im et r ic o, F: polym´etrique, D: polymetrisch, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: monia
tahtiosoituksia yht¨aaikaa tai per¨akk¨ain sis¨alt¨av¨a.
Characterized by polymeter: using two or more metric frameworks simultaneously or in
alternation.
See also
Section 1.242 [polymeter], page 61, (noun).
1.244 polymetric time si gna t ure
ES: indicaci´on de comp´as polim´etrico, I: tempo polimetrico, F: m´etrique polym´etrique, D:
zusammengesetzte Taktart, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: vaihtelevan tahtiosoitusmerkint¨a.
A t i me sign at u re th at indicates r egu lar l y alt e rn at i ng poly me t ri c ti m e.
See also
Section 1.243 [polymetric], page 61.
1.245 polyphony
ES: polifon´ıa, I: polifonia, F: polyphonie, D: Polyphonie, Mehrstimmigkeit, NL: polyfon ie , DK:
polyfoni, S: polyfoni, FI: polyfonia, moni¨a¨anisyys.
Music written in a combination of several simultaneous voices (part s ) o f a mor e or less
pronounced individuality.
See also
Section 1.72 [counterpoint], page 19.
1.246 portato
[Italian: past participle of portare, ‘to carry’]
A stroke in which each of several notes is separated slightly within a slur, without changing
the bow’s d i r ect i on . It is used for passages of a cantabile character.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 62
See also
Section 1.174 [legato], page 44.
1.247 power chord
A chord containing only the root and the fifth (possibly in multiple octaves). Commonly used
in guitar music, particularly with electric guitar and high distort i on .
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13.
1.248 presto
ES: presto, muy r´apido, I: presto, F: presto, tr`es rapide, enlev´e, D: Presto, Sehr schnell, NL:
presto, Sehr schnell, DK: presto, S: presto, FI: presto, hyvin nopeasti.
[Italian]
Very quick, i.e., quicker than Se ct i on 1.12 [allegro], page 4; prestissimo denotes the highest
possible degree of speed.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.249 proportion
ES: proporci´on, I: proporzione, F: proportion, D: Proportio, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: suhde.
[Latin: proportio] De sc ri bed i n gr eat detail by Gaffurius, i n P ractica m u s icae (published in
Milan in 1496). In mensural notation, proportion is:
1. A ratio that expresses the relationship between the note values that follow with those that
precede;
2. A ratio between the note values of a passage and the ‘normal’ relationship of note values
to the metrical pulse. (A special case of the first definition.)
The most common proportions are:
• 2:1 (or simply 2), expr e sse d by a vertical line through the mensuration sign (th e origin of
the alla breve time signature), or by turning the sign backwards
• 3:1 (or simply 3)
• 3:2 (sesquialtera)
To ‘canc el ’ any of these, t he inve rs e proport ion i s app l i ed . Thus:
• 1:2 cancels 2:1
• 1:3 cancels 3:1
• 2:3 cancels 3:2
• and so on .
Gaffurius enumerates five basic types of major:minor proportions and their inverses:
1. Multiplex, if the major number is an exact multiple of the minor (2:1, 3:1, 4:2, 6:3); and its
inverse, Submultiplex (1:2, 1:3, 2:4, 3:6)
2. Epimoria or Superparticular [ori g. Epimor ia seu Superparticularis], if th e major number is
one more than the minor (3:2, 4:3, 5:4); and its inverse, Subsuperparticular (2:3, 3:4, 4:5)
3. Superpartiens, if the major number is one less than twice the minor (5:3, 7:4, 9:5, 11:6);
and its inverse, subsuperpartiens (3:5, 4:7, 5:9, 6:11)
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 63
4. Multiplexsuperparticular, if the major number is one more than twice the minor (5:2, 7:3,
9:4); and its inverse, Submultiplexsuperparticular (2:5, 3:7, 4:9)
5. Multiplexsuperpartiens, if the major number is one less than some other multiple (usually
three or four) of t h e minor (8:3, 11:4, 14:5, 11:3); and its inverse, S ub multiplexsuperpartiens
(3:8, 4:11, 5:14, 3:11)
He then continues to subdivide each type in various ways. For the multiplex proportions, for
example, he indicates how many times greater the major number is than the minor:
• If two times greater, the proportion is dupla. If inverted, it’s called subdupla. Examples :
2:1, 4:2, and 6:3.
• If three, tripla; and its inversion, subtri pl a. Example: 3:1, 6:2, and 9:3.
• If four, quadrupla; and its inversion, subqu adr u pla. Example: 4:1, 8:2, and 12:3
Other proportions were possible, but whether they were frequently used is another question:
• 33:9, triplasuperbipartientetertias
• 51:15, triplasuperbipartientequintas
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47.
1.250 Pythagorean comma
ES: coma pitag´orica, I: comma p it agor i co, F: comma pythagoricien, D: Pythagor¨aisches Komma,
NL: komma van Pythagoras, DK: pythagoræisk komma, S: pytagoreiskt komma, FI: pytagorinen
komma.
Originally, the interval by which the sum of six whole tones exceeds the octave – (9:8)^6 -
2:1 = 531441: 524288, or 23. 5 cents.
Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which twelve fifths exceed seven octaves.
To put it another way: A sequence of fifths that starts on C eventually circles back to C. However,
this C is 23.5 Section 1.50 [cent], page 13s higher than the C obtained by adding 7 octaves. The
difference between those two pitches is the Pythagorean comma.
See also
Section 1.50 [cent], page 13, Section 1.307 [temperament], page 76.
1.251 quadruplet
ES: cuatrillo, I: quartina, F: qu ar t ole t , D: Qu ar t ole , NL: k warto ol , DK: kvartol, S: kvartol, FI:
kvartoli.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.252 quality
ES: variante [de acorde o intervalo], I: qualit`a (?), F: qualit´e [d’accord ou d’intervalle], D: Modus
(Dur oder Moll), NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: laatu.
The quality of a tri ad is determined by the precise arrangem ent of its intervals. Tertian triads
can be described as a series of three notes. The first element is the root note (or si mp ly ‘root’)
of the chord, the second note is the ‘third’ of the chord, and the last note is the ‘fifth’ of the
chord. These are described below:
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 64
Chord name Component intervals Example Symbol
major tr i ad major third/perfect
fifth
C-E-G C, CM, Cma, Cmaj, C∆
minor triad minor third/perfect
fifth
C-E♭-G Cm, Cmi, Cmin, C-
augmented
triad
major
third/augmented
fifth
C-E-G♯ C+, C^+, Caug
diminished
triad
minor
third/diminished
fifth
C-E♭-G♭ Cm(♭5), C
o
, Cdim
There are various types of seventh chords depending on the quality of the original chord and
the quality of the seventh added.
Five common types of seventh chords have standard symbols. The chord quality indi c at ion s
are sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g. Dm7, Dm^7, and D^m7 are all identical).
The last three chords are not commonly used except in jazz.
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13.
1.253 quarter note
• UK: crotchet
• ES: negra
• I: semiminima, nera
• F: noire
• D: Viertel, Viertelnote
• NL: kwartnoot
• DK: fjerdedelsnode
• S: fj¨ardedelsnot
• FI: nelj¨asosanuotti
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.254 quarter rest
• UK: crotchet rest
• ES: silencio de negra
• I: pausa di semiminima
• F: soupir
• D: Viertelpause
• NL: kwartrust
• DK: fjerdedelspause
• S: fj¨ardedelspaus
• FI: nelj¨asosatauko
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 65
1.255 quarter tone
ES: cuarto de tono, I: quarto di tono, F: quart de ton, D: Viert e l ton , NL: kwart toon, DK: ?, S:
kvartston, FI: nelj¨anness¨avelaskel.
An interval equal to half a semitone.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.256 quintuplet
ES: cinquillo, quintillo, I: quintina, F: quintolet, D: Quintole, NL: kwintool, DK: kvintol, S:
kvintol, FI: kvintoli.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.257 rallentando
ES: r al l entando, I: rallentando, F: rallentando, en ralentissant, D: rallentando, langsamer werden,
NL: rallentando, DK: rallentando, S: rallentando, FI: rallerdando, hidastuen.
[Italian: ‘slowing down’]
Slackening in speed, more gradual than Section 1.262 [ r i t ard and o] , page 66. Abbreviated to
rall.
See also
Section 1.262 [ritardando], page 66.
1.258 relative key
ES: tono relativo, I: tonalit`a rel at i va, F: tonalit´e relative, D: Paralleltonart, NL: paralleltoon-
soort, DK: paralleltoneart, S: parallelltonart, FI: rinnakkaiss ¨avellaji.
Major and minor keys that have the same key signature.
.
.
.
.
.
e flat major
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
c minor
.
.
.
.
See also
Section 1.167 [key], page 42, Section 1.168 [key signature], page 42, Section 1.185 [major],
page 46, Section 1.205 [minor], page 52.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 66
1.259 repeat
ES: r epeti c i´on, I: ripetizione, F: barre de reprise, D: Wiederholung, NL: herhaling, DK: genta-
gelse, S: repris, FI: toisto.
P
P
h
h
h
h
N
h
h
hh
h
h
N
h
h
ª
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.260 rest
ES: silencio, I: pausa, F: silence, D: Pause, NL: rust, DK: pause, S: paus, FI: tauko.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.261 rhythm
ES: ritmo, I: ritmo, F: rythme, D: Rhythmus, NL: ritme, DK: rytme, S: rytm , F I: r yt m i.
• Metrical rhythm in which every time value is a multiple or fraction of a fixed unit of time,
called beat, and in which the normal accent recurs in regular intervals, called measure. The
basic scheme of time values is called meter.
• Measured rhythm which lacks regularly recurrent accent. In modern notation such music
appears as a fr ee alternation of d iff er ent measures.
• Free rhythm, i.e., the use of temporal values having no common metrical unit (beat).
See also
Section 1.4 [accent], page 2, Section 1.36 [beat], page 9, Section 1.189 [measure], page 46,
Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.262 ritardando
ES: ri t ard an do, retardando, I: ritardando, F: ritardando, en ralentissant, D: ritardando,
langsamer werden, NL: ritardando, DK: ritardando, S: ritardando, FI: rit ar d and o, hi d ast ue n,
[Italian: ‘lagging’]
Gradual slowing down, more pronounced than Section 1.257 [rallentando], page 65. Mostly
abbreviated to rit. or ritard.
See also
Section 1.257 [rallentando], page 65.
1.263 ritenuto
ES: ritenuto, reteniendo, I: ritenuto, F: ritenuto, en retenant, D: ritenuto, NL: ritenuto, DK:
ritenuto, S: ritenuto, FI: ritenuto, hidastaen.
Immediate reduction of speed.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 67
1.264 scale
ES: escala, I: scala, F: gamme, D: Tonleiter, NL: toonladder, DK: Skala, S: skala, FI: asteikko,
s¨avelasteikko.
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22.
1.265 scale degree
ES: grado (de la escala), I: grado della scala, F: degr´e [de la gamme], D: Tonlei t er st u fe , NL: trap
[van de t oonladde r] , DK: skalatri n, S: skalst eg (?), FI : s ¨avelaste, asteikon s¨avel.
Names and symbols used in h arm oni c analysis to denote tones of the scale as roots of chords.
The most important are degrees I = tonic (T), IV = subdominant (S) and V = dominant (D).
VII
.
VI
.
D
V
.
I
.
T
.
IVI
.
III
S
.
.
II
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35.
1.266 scordatura
ES: encordado, I: scordatura, F: `a cordes ravall´ees, D: Skordatur, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI:
ep¨atavallinen vir i tys.
[Italian: scordare, ‘to mistune’] Unconventional tuning of stringed instruments, particularl y
lutes or violins. Used to:
• facilitate pitch combinations that would otherwise be difficult or impossible
• alter the characteristic timbre of the instrument, for example, to increase brilliance
• reinforce certain sonorities or tonalities by making them available on open strings
• imitate other instruments
• etc.
Tunings that could be called scordatura first appeared early in the 16th Century and became
commonplace in the 17th.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.267 score
ES: partitura, I: partitura, F: partition, conducteur (full s core), D: Partitur (full score), Klavier-
auszug (vocal score), NL: partituur, DK: partitur, S: partitur, FI: par t i t uu r i.
A copy of orchestral, choral, or chamber music showing what e ach instrument is to play,
each voice to sing, having each part arranged one underneath th e other on different staves
Section 1.291 [staff], page 72.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 68
1.268 second
ES: segunda, I: seconda, F: seconde, D: Seku n de , NL: secunde, DK: sekund, S: sekund, FI:
sekunti.
The interval between two neighboring tones of a scale. A diatonic scale consist s of alternating
semitones and whol e tones, hen ce the size of a s ec ond depends on the scale degrees in qu es t ion .
See also
Section 1.84 [diatonic scale], page 22, Section 1.163 [interval], page 41, Section 1.270 [semi-
tone], page 68, Section 1.341 [whole tone], page 83.
1.269 semibreve
• US: whole note,
• ES: redonda,
• I: semibreve,
• F: ronde,
• D: Ganze, ganze Note, Semibrevis,
• NL: hele noot,
• DK: helnode,
• S: helnot,
• FI: kokonuotti.
Note value: called whole note in the US.
The semibreve is the basis for the tactus in mensural notation (i.e., music written before ca.
1600).
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47, Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.270 semitone
ES: semitono, I: semitono, F: demi-ton, D: Halbton, NL: halve toon, DK: halvtone, S: halvton,
FI: puolis¨avel.
The interval of a minor second. The (usually) smallest interval in European composed music.
The interval between two neighboring tones on the piano keyboard – including black and white
keys – i s a semi t one . An octave may be divided into 12 semitones.
.
. .
.
. .
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41, Section 1.54 [chromatic scale], page 14.
1.271 seventh
ES: s´eptima, I: settima, F: septi`eme, D: Septime, NL: sept i em , DK: septim, S: septim, FI:
septimi.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 69
1.272 sextolet
See also
Section 1.273 [sextuplet], page 69, Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.273 sextuplet
ES: seisillo, I: sestina, F: sextolet, D: Sextole, NL: sextool, DK: sek s t ol, S : s ex t ol, F I: sek s tol i .
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.274 shake
See also
Section 1.326 [trill], page 80.
1.275 sharp
ES: sos t en i do, I: diesi s, F: di`ese, D: Kreuz, NL: kruis, DK: kry d s, S: korsf¨ortecken, FI: korotus-
merkki.
See also
Section 1.7 [accidental], page 2.
1.276 simile
ES: si mi le , sim i lar , I: simile, F: simile, de fa¸con identique, D: simile, gl ei chartig, NL: ?, DK: ?,
S: ?, FI: samoin.
[Italian: ‘in the same manner ’ ] Performance d i r ect i on : the music thu s marked is to be played
in the same manner (i.e., with the same articulations, dynamics, etc.) as the music that precedes
it.
See also
TODO: Where else could I refer the reader?
1.277 simple meter
ES: comp´as simple, comp ´as de subdivisi´on binaria, I: temp o semplice, F: mesu re binaire, D:
grader Takt, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: kaksijakoinen tahtiosoitus.
A meter in which the basic beat is subdiv i d ed in two: that is, a meter that does not include
triplet subdivision of the beat.
See also
Section 1.65 [compound meter], page 17, Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.278 sixteenth note
• UK: semiquaver
• ES: semicorchea
• I: semicroma
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 70
• F: double croche
• D: Sechzehntel, Sechzehntelnote
• NL: zestiende noot
• DK: sekstendedelsnode
• S: sextondelsnot
•
FI: kuudestoistaosanuotti
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.279 sixteenth rest
• UK: semiquaver rest
• ES: silencio de semicorchea
• I: pausa di semicroma
• F: quart de soupir
• D: Sechzehntelpause
• NL: zestiende rust
• DK: sekstendedelspause
• S: sextondelspaus
• FI: kuudestoistaosatauko
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.280 sixth
ES: sexta, I: sesta, F: sixte, D: Sexte, NL: sext, DK: sekst, S: sext , FI: se ks t i .
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.281 sixty-fourth note
• UK: hemidemisemiquaver
• ES: semifusa
• I: semibiscroma
• F: quadruple croche
• D: Vierundsechzigstel, Vierundsechzigstelnote
• NL: vierenzestigste noot
• DK: fireogtredsindstyvendedelsnode
• S: sextiofj¨ardedelsnot
• FI: kuudeskymmenesnelj¨asosanuotti
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 71
1.282 sixty-fourth res t
• UK: hemidemisemiquaver rest
• ES: silencio de semifusa
• I: pausa di semibiscroma
• F: seizi`eme de soupir
• D: Vierundsechzigstelpause
• NL: vierenzestigste rust
• DK: fireogtredsindstyvendedelspause
• S: sextiofj¨ardedelspaus
• FI: kuudeskymmenesnelj¨asosatauko
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.283 slash repeat
See also
Section 1.233 [percent repeat], page 59.
1.284 slur
ES: li gad ur a de expresi´on, I: legatura (di portamento o espressiva), F: liaison, coul´e, D: Bogen
(Legatobogen, Phrasierungsbogen), NL: fraseringsboog, legatoboog, st r eek boog, DK: legatobue,
fraseringsbue, S: b˚age, FI: kaari.
A slur above or below a group of notes indicates that they are to be played Section 1.174
[legato], page 44, e.g., with one stroke of the violin bow or with one breath in singing.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.285 solmization
ES: solmisaci´on, I: solmisazione, F: solmisation, D: Solmisation, NL: solmizatie, DK: solmisation,
S: solmisation, FI: suhteelliset laulunimet.
General term for systems of designating the degrees of the scale, not by letters, bu t by
syllables (do (ut), re, mi, fa, sol, la, si (ti)).
See also
Section 1.264 [scale], page 67, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
1.286 sonata
ES: sonata, I: sonata, F: sonate, D: Sonate, NL: sonate, DK: sonate, S: sonat, FI: sonaatti .
In its present-day meaning a sonata denotes an instrumental composition for piano or for
some other instrument with piano accompaniment, which consists of three or four independent
pieces, called movements.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 72
1.287 sonata form
ES: forma sonata, I: forma sonata, F: [en] forme de sonate, D: Sonatenform, NL: hoofdvorm,
sonatevorm, DK: sonateform, S: sonatform, FI: sonaattimuoto.
A form used frequently for single movements of the sonata, sym phon y, quartet, etc. A
movement written in sonata form falls into three sections called exposition, development and
recapitulation. In the exposition the composer introduces some musical ideas, consisting of a
number of themes; in the development section the composer develops this material, and in the
recapitulation the composer repeats the exposition, with certain modifications. The exposition
contains a nu mber of themes that fall into two groups, often called first and second subject.
Other melodies occurring in each group are considered as continuations of these two. The
second theme is in another ke y, normally in the key of the dominant if t he tonic is major, and
in the relative key if the tonic is minor.
See also
Section 1.95 [dominant], page 25, Section 1.185 [major], page 46, Section 1.205 [minor],
page 52, Section 1.258 [relative key], page 65, Section 1.286 [sonata], page 71, Section 1.303
[symphony], page 75, Section 1.320 [tonic], page 78.
1.288 song texts
See also
Section 1.184 [lyrics], page 46.
1.289 soprano
ES: soprano, I: soprano, F: soprano, D: Sopran, NL: sopraan, DK: sopran, S: sopran, FI: so-
praano, korkea nais¨a¨ani.
The highest female voice.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.290 staccato
ES: picado, I: staccato, F: staccato, piqu´e, d´etach´e, D: stacc at o, NL: staccato, DK: staccato, S:
staccato, FI: staccato, lyhyesti, ter¨av¨asti.
Playing the note(s) short. Staccato is indicated by a dot above or below the note head.
N
n
h
n
h
P
u
h
n
ª
h
n
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.291 staff
UK: stave, ES: pentagrama, pauta, I: pentagramma, rigo (musicale), F: port´ee, D: Notensystem,
Notenzeile, NL: (noten)balk, partij, DK: nodesystem, S: notsys t em, F I: nuottiviivasto.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 73
A st aff (plur al : staves) is a series of (normally five) horizontal lines upon and between which
the musical notes are written, thus i n di cat i n g (in connection with a Section 1.57 [clef], page 14)
their pitch. Staves for Section 1.234 [percussion], p age 59, in st r u ments may have fewer lines.
h
h
h
ª
h
See also
Section 1.306 [system], page 76.
1.292 staves
See also
Section 1.291 [staff], page 72.
1.293 stem
ES: plica, I: gamba, F: hampe, D: Hals, Notenhals, Stiel, NL: stok, DK: hals, S: skaft, FI:
nuottipalkki.
Vertical line above or below a Section 1.220 [note head], page 55, shorter than a whole note.
h h
u
1/8
h
T
h
1/16
v
h
U
N
1/2
N
h
1/4
See also
Section 1.35 [beam], page 9.
1.294 stringendo
ES: stringendo, acelerando, I: stringendo, F: stringendo, en acc´el´erant, D: stringendo, NL: ?,
DK: ?, S: ?, FI: kiihdytt¨aen, nopeuttaen.
[Italian: ‘pressing’] Pressing, urging, or hasteni n g th e ti me , as to a climax .
See also
Section 1.3 [accelerando], page 1.
1.295 strings
ES: arcos , cuerd as, I: archi, F: cordes, D: Streicher, NL: strijkers, DK: strygere, S: str˚akar, FI:
jouset.
A family of stringed musical instruments played with a bow. Strings commonly used in a
symphony orchestra are violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 74
1.296 strong beat
ES: tiempo fu er t e, I: tempo forte, F: temps fort, D: betonter Taktteil oder Taktschlag, NL:
thesis, D: betonet taktslag, S: betonat taktslag, FI: tahdin vahva isku.
See also
Section 1.36 [beat], page 9, Section 1.4 [accent], page 2, Section 1.189 [measure], page 46,
Section 1.261 [rhythm], page 66.
1.297 subdominant
ES: subdominante, I: sottodominante, F: sous-dominante, D: Subdominante, NL: subdominant,
DK: subdominant, S: subdominant, FI: subdominantti, alidominantti.
The fourth scale degree.
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
1.298 submediant
ES: submediante, I: sopradominante, F: sous-m´ediante, D: Submediante, NL: submediant, DK:
Submediant, S: submediant, FI: alikeskis¨avel.
The sixth scale degree.
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67,
Section 1.301 [superdominant], page 74.
1.299 subtonic
ES: subt´onica, I: sottotonica, F: sous-tonique, D: Subtonika, NL: subtonica, DK: Subtonika, S:
subtonika, FI: subtoonika, alitoonika.
The seventh Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
1.300 sul G
ES: sobre la cuerda de Sol, I: sul Sol, F: sur la corde de sol, D: auf G, auf der G-Saite, NL: ?,
DK: ?, S: ?, FI: G-kielell¨a.
Indicates that the indicated passage (or note) should be played on the G string.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.301 superdominant
ES: superdominante, I: sopradom in ante, F: sus-dominante, D : Superdominante, NL: superdom-
inant, DK: superdominant, S: superdominant, FI: ylidominantti.
The sixth Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67. Equivalent to the submediant, q.v.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 75
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67,
Section 1.298 [submediant], page 74.
1.302 supertonic
ES: supert´onica, I: sopratonica, F: sus-tonique, D: Supert oni ka, NL: super t oni ca, DK: supe r -
tonika, S: supertonika, FI: ylitoonika.
The second Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
1.303 symphony
ES: si n fon´ıa, I: sinfonia, F: symphonie, D: Sinfonie, Symphoni e , NL: symfonie, DK: symf oni , S:
symfoni, FI: sinfonia.
A sy m ph ony may be defined as a sonata for orchestra.
See also
Section 1.286 [sonata], page 71.
1.304 syncopation
ES: s´ıncopa, I: sincope, F: syncope, D: Synkope, NL: syncope, DK: synkope, S: synkop, FI:
synkooppi.
Any deliberate upsetting of the normal pulse of Section 1.198 [meter] , page 49, Section 1.4
[accent], page 2, and Section 1.261 [rhythm], page 66. The occidental sy st e m of musical rhythm
rests upon the grouping of equal beats into groups of two or three, with a regularly recurrent
accent on the first beat of each group. Any deviation from this scheme is felt as a disturban ce
or contradiction between the underlaying (normal) pulse and the actual (abnormal) rhythm.
h
h
h
h
h
h
2
4
h
h
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.305 syntonic comma
ES: coma sint´onica, coma de D´ıdimo, I: comm a sinton i co (o didimico), F: comma syntonique,
D: syntonisches Komma, NL: syntonische komma, DK: syntonisk komma, S: syntoniskt komma,
FI: syntoninen komma, terssien taajuusero luonnollisessa ja Pytagoris es sa viritysj¨arjestelm¨ass¨a.
Named after Ptolemy’s syntonic diatonic genus. Originally, the difference by which the
ditone ex ce ed s the pure major third obtained by Pythagorean tuning – (9:8)^2 - 5:4 = 81:80, or
21.5 cents.
Modern acoustical theory defines it as the interval by which four fifths exceed the s um of two
octaves pl us a major thi rd . (3:2)^4 - (2:1)^2 + (5:4)
This comma is also known as the comma of Didymus, or didymic comma.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 76
See also
Section 1.250 [Pythagorean comma], page 63.
1.306 system
ES: si st em a, I: sistema, F: syst`eme, D: Notensystem, NL: sy s t eem , DK: system, S: system, FI:
nuottiviivasto.
One ‘line’ of music on the page, consisting of one or more staves grouped vertically. A line
break is a switch to the next system.
For examp l e, a piano music score often contains five to six systems per page (with normally
two staves per system), while a full orchestral score usually contains only one or two systems
per page.
See also
Section 1.291 [staff], page 72.
1.307 temperament
ES: temperam ento, I: temp er ame nto, F: temp´erament, D: Stimmung, Temperatur, NL: stem-
ming, temperatuur, DK: temperatur, S: temperatur, FI: viritysj¨arjestelm¨a.
Systems of tuning in which the intervals deviate from the acoustically pure interval s .
See also
Section 1.188 [meantone temperament], page 46, Section 1.120 [equal temperament], page 30.
1.308 tempo indication
ES: indicaci´on de tempo, I: indicazione di tempo, F: indication de tempo, D: Zei tm aß, Tem-
pobezeichnung, NL: tempo aanduiding, DK: tempobetegelse, S: tempobeteckning, F I: tem-
pomerkint¨a.
The rate of speed of a composition or a section thereof, ranging from the slowest to the
quickest, as is indicated by tempo marks as largo, ad agio, andante, allegro, and presto.
See also
Section 1.8 [adagio], page 3, Section 1.12 [allegro], page 4, Section 1.19 [andante], page 5,
Section 1.171 [largo], page 43, Section 1.248 [presto], page 62.
1.309 tenor
ES: tenor, I: tenore, F: t´enor, D: Tenor , NL: tenor, DK: tenor, S: tenor, FI: tenori, korkea
mies¨a¨ani.
The highest ‘natural’ male voice (apart from countertenor).
See also
Section 1.73 [countertenor], page 19.
1.310 tenth
ES: d´ecima, I: decima, F: dixi`eme, D: Dezime, NL: deciem, DK: decim, S: decima, FI: desimi.
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 77
1.311 tenuto
ES: subrayado (tenuto), I: tenuto, F: tenue, tenuto, D: gehalten, tenuo, NL: tenuto, DK: tenuto,
S: tenuto, FI: viiva, tenuto.
An indi cat i on that a particular note shou l d be held for t h e whole length, although this can
vary depen di n g on the compose r and e ra.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.312 third
ES: tercera, I: terza, F: tierce, D: Terz, NL: terts, DK: terts, S: ters, FI: terssi.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.313 thirty-second note
• UK: demisemiquaver
• ES: fusa
• I: biscroma
• F: triple croche
•
D: Zweiunddreissigstel, Zweiunddreissigstelnote
• NL: tweeendertigste (32e) noot
• DK: toogtredivtedelsnode
• S: trettiotv˚aondelsnot
• FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosanuotti
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.314 thirty-second rest
• UK: demisemiquaver rest
• ES: silencio de fusa
• I: pausa di biscroma
• F: huiti`eme de soupir
• D: Zweiunddreissigstelpause
• NL: tweeendertigste (32e) rust
• DK: toogtredivtedelspause
• S: trettiotv˚aondelspaus
• FI: kolmaskymmeneskahdesosatauko
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.315 thorough bass
See also
Section 1.129 [figured bass], page 32.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 78
1.316 tie
ES: ligadura de uni´on (o de prolongaci´on), I: legatura ( d i valore), F: liaison (de tenue), D: Halte-
bogen, Bi n de bogen, NL: overbinding, bindingsboog, DK: bindebue, S: b in d eb˚age, ¨overbindning,
FI: sitominen.
A curved line, identical in appearance with the Section 1.284 [slur], page 71, which connects
two succesi ve notes of the same pitch, and which has the function of uniting them into a single
sound (tone) equal to the combined durations.
h
P
N
1.317 time
See also
Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.318 time signature
ES: indicaci´on de comp´as, I: segni di tempo, F: m´et r iq u e, chiffrage (chiffres ind i cat e ur s) , indi-
cation de mesure, D: Taktangabe, Angabe der Taktart, NL: maatsoort, DK: taktangivelse, S:
taktartssignatur, FI: tahtiosoitus.
The s ign plac ed at the beginning of a composition to indicate its meter. It mos t often takes
the form of a frac t ion , but a few signs derived from mensural notation and proportions are also
employed.
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47, Section 1.196 [mensuration sign], page 48,
Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.319 tone
ES: tono, I: suono, F: ton, son, D: Ton, NL: toon, DK: tone, S: ton, FI: ¨a¨ani.
A sound of defini t e pitch an d duration, as distinct from noise. Tone is a primary building
material of music.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.320 tonic
ES: t´onica, I: tonica, F: tonique, D: Tonika, NL: tonica, DK: tonika, S: tonika, FI: toonika.
The first scale degree.
See also
Section 1.142 [functional harmony], page 35, Section 1.265 [scale degree], page 67.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 79
1.321 transposing instr ument
ES: instrumento transpositor, I: strumento traspositore, F : instrument transp os i t eu r, D:
transponierende Instrumente, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: transponoitava soitin.
Instruments whose notated pitch is different from their sounded pitch. Except for those
whose not at ed and sounding pitches differ by one or more octaves (to reduce t h e number of
ledger lines needed), most such instruments are identified by the letter name of the pitch class
of their fundamental. The pitch class is the note that sounds (disre gard i ng the octave in which
it sounds) when the instrument plays a notated C.
For example: when playe d on the B-flat clarinet, the note middle C sounds the B-flat one
tone lower. If played on the A clarinet, the same written not e sounds the A (one and half tones
– a min or th ir d – lower) .
Not all transposing instruments include the pitch class in their name:
• Alto flute (in G)
• English horn (in F)
• Saxophones (in B-flat or E-flat)
See also
Section 1.67 [concert pitch], page 17.
1.322 transposition
ES: transporte, transposici´on, I: trasposizione, F: transposition, D: Transposition, NL: trans-
positie, DK: transposition, S: transponering, FI: transponointi.
Shifting a melody up or down in pitch, while keeping the same relative pitches.
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
hh
h
h
h
h
3
4
h h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
hh
h
h
h
h
3
4
h h
h
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.323 treble clef
ES: clave de sol en segunda, I: chiave di violino, F: clef de sol, D: Violinschl¨us sel , Sopranschl¨ussel,
NL: viool sleutel, DK: diskantnøgle, S: diskantklav, FI: diskanttiavain.
See also
Section 1.144 [G clef], page 35.
1.324 tremolo
ES: tr´emolo, I: tremolo, F : tr´emolo, D: Tremolo, NL: tremolo, DK: tremolo, S: tremolo, FI:
tremolo.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 80
On stringed instruments:
1. The qui ck reiteration of the same tone, produced by a rapid up-and-down movement of t he
bow.
2. Or, the rapid alternation between two n ote s of a Section 1.52 [chord], page 13, usually in
the distance of a third (Section 1.163 [interval], page 41).
h
h
h N
b
N
a
N
N
h
See also
Section 1.295 [strings], page 73.
1.325 triad
ES: tr´ıada, I: triade, F: triade, accord parfait, accord de trois sons, D: Dreiklang, NL: drieklank,
DK: treklang, S: treklang, FI: kolmisointu.
See also
Section 1.52 [chord], page 13.
1.326 trill
ES: trino, I: trillo, F: trille, tr emblement, battement (cadence), D: Trill er , NL: triller, DK: trille,
S: drill, FI: trilli.
See also
Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
1.327 triple meter
ES: comp´as ternario, I: tempo ternario, F: mesure ternaire, D: Dreiert ak t , ungerader Takt, NL:
driedelige maatsoort, DK: tredelt takt, S: tretakt, FI: kolmijakoin en .
See also
Section 1.198 [meter], page 49.
1.328 triplet
ES: tresillo, I: terzina, F: triolet, D: Triole, NL: triool, DK: tri ol , S: tr i ol , F I: t ri ol i .
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.329 tritone
ES: tr i t ono, I: tritono, F: triton, D: Tritonus, NL: tritoon, DK: tritonus, S: tritonus, FI: tritonus.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 81
1.330 tuning fork
ES: diapas´on [de horquilla], I: diapason, corista, F: diapason , D: Stimmgabel, NL: stemvork,
DK: stemmegaffel, S: st¨amgaffel, FI: viritysavain, ¨a¨anirauta.
A two-pronged piece of steel used to indicate an absolute pitch, usually for A above middle
C (440 cps/Hz), which is the international tuning standard. Tuning forks for other pitches are
available.
See also
Section 1.204 [middle C], page 52.
1.331 tuplet
ES: grupo de valoraci´on especial, I: grup pi irregolari, F: N-olet, D: N-tole, NL: Antimetrische
figuur, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
A non-standard subdivision of a beat or part of a beat, usually indicated with a bracket and
a number indic at i ng t he number of subdivi s ion s.
See also
Section 1.328 [triplet], page 80, Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.332 turn
ES: grupeto (circular), I: gruppetto, F: grupetto, D: Doppelschlag, NL: dubbelslag, DK: dobbelt-
slag, S: dubbelslag, FI: korukuvio.
See also
Section 1.228 [ornament], page 58.
1.333 unison
ES: un´ısono, I: unisono, F: unisson, D: unisono, NL: unisono, DK: unison, S: unison , FI: unisono,
yksi¨a¨anisesti.
Playing of the same notes or the same melody by various instruments (voices) or by the whole
orchestra (choir), either at exactly the same pitch or in a different octave.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.334 upbeat
ES: anacrusa, I: anacrusi, F: anacrouse, l ev´ee, D: Auftakt, NL: opmaat, DK: optakt, S: upptakt,
FI: kohotahti.
See also
Section 1.17 [anacrusis], page 5.
1.335 voice
ES: voz, I: voce, F: voix, D: Stimme, NL: stem, DK: stemme, S: st¨amma, FI: ¨a¨ani, laulu¨a¨ani.
• Human voices:
• Section 1.289 [soprano], page 72,
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 82
• Section 1.203 [mezzo-soprano], page 52,
• Section 1.70 [contralto], page 18,
• Section 1.309 [tenor], page 76,
• Section 1.31 [baritone], page 8,
• Section 1.33 [bass], page 9,
• A me l odic layer or part of a polyphon i c composi ti on .
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.336 volta
ES: vez, primera y segunda vez, I: volta, F : volta, fois, D: volta-Klammer, W i ed er hol u ngs kl am -
mer, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: yksi kertauksen maaleista.
[Italian: ‘time’ (instance, not duration)] An ending, such as a first or second ending. LilyPond
extends this idea to any number, and allows any text (not just a number) – to serve as the volta
text.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.337 vowel transition
ES: ?, I: ?, F: ?, D: Vokalwechsel, NL: ?, DK: ?, S: ?, FI: ?.
A gradual change of vowel or sustained consonant, usually indicated by an arrow between
syllables (see Gould, pp. 452–453).
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
1.338 weak beat
ES: tiempo d´ebil, I: tempo debole, arsi, F: temps faible, D: unbetonter Taktteil oder Taktsch lag,
NL: arsis, DK: ubetonet taktslag, S: obetonat taktslag, FI: tahdin heikko isku.
See also
Section 1.36 [beat], page 9, Section 1.189 [measure], page 46, Section 1.261 [rhythm], page 66.
1.339 whole note
• UK: semibreve
• ES: redonda
• I: semibreve
• F: ronde
• D: Ganze, ganze Note
•
NL: hele noot
• DK: helnode
• S: helnot
•
FI: kokonuotti
Chapter 1: Musical terms A-Z 83
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.340 whole rest
• UK: semibreve rest
• ES: silencio de redonda
• I: pausa di semibreve
• F: pause
• D: ganze Pause, ganztaktige Pause
• NL: hele rust
• DK: helnodespause
• S: helpaus
• FI: kokotauko
See also
Section 1.222 [note value], page 55.
1.341 whole tone
ES: tono (entero), I: tono intero, F: ton entier, D: Ganzton, NL: hele toon, DK: heltone, S:
helton, FI: kokoaskel.
The interval of a major second. The interval between two tones on the piano keyboard with
exactly one key between them – including black and white keys – is a whole tone.
See also
Section 1.163 [interval], page 41.
1.342 woodwind
ES: made ras , I: legni , F: les bois, D: Holzbl¨aser, NL: houtblazers, DK træblæsere, S: tr¨abl˚asare,
FI: puupuhaltimet.
A family of blown wooden musical instruments. Today some of these instruments are actually
made from metal. The woodwind instruments commonly used in a symphony orchest ra are flute,
oboe, clar i ne t, saxophone, and bas soon.
See also
No cr os s-r ef er en ce s.
84
2 Duration names notes and rests
Lang. note name rest name note name rest name
US long long rest breve breve rest
UK longa l onga res t breve breve rest
ES longa silencio de longa cuadrada silencio de
cuadrada
IT longa pausa di longa breve pausa di breve
FR longa quadruple-pause br`eve double-pause
DE Longa longa Pause Brevis brevis Pause
NL longa longa rust brevis brevis rust
DK longa longanodespause brevis brevis(nodes)pause
SE longa longapaus brevis brevispaus
FI longa-nuotti longa-tauko brevis-nuotti,
kaksoiskokonuotti
brevis-tauko,
kaksoiskokotauko
Lang. note name rest name note name rest name
US whole note whole rest half note half rest
UK semibr eve semibreve rest minim minim rest
ES redonda silencio de
redonda
blanca silencio de blanca
IT semibreve pause di semibreve minima pausa di minima
FR ronde pause blanche demi-pause
DE ganze Note ganze Pause halbe Not e halbe Pause
NL
hele noot
hele rust
halve noot
halve rust
DK helnode helnodespause halvnode halvnodespause
SE helnot helpaus halvnot halvpaus
FI kokonuotti kokotauko puolinuotti puolitauko
Lang. note name rest name note name rest name
US quarter note quarter rest eighth note eighth rest
UK crotchet crotchet rest quaver quaver rest
ES negra silencio de negra corchea silenci o de corchea
IT semiminima, nera pausa di semimin-
ima, pausa di nera
croma pausa di croma
FR noire soupir* croche* demi-soupir
DE Viertelnote Viertelpause Achtelnote Achtelpause
NL kwartnoot kwartrust achtste noot achtste rust
DK fjerdedelsnode fjerdedelsp au se ottende de l sn ode ottendedelspause
SE fj¨ardedelsnot fj¨ardedelspaus ˚attondelsn ot ˚attondelspaus
FI nelj¨asosanuotti nelj¨asosatauko kahdeksasosa-
nuotti
kahdeksasosa-
tauko
* About the French naming system: croche refers to the note’s ‘hook’. Therefore, from the
eighth note on, the note names mean ‘hook’, ‘doubled hook’, ‘trebled hook’, and so on.
The rest names are based on the soupir, or quarter rest. Subsequent rests are expressed as
fractions thereof: half a soupir, a quart er of a soup i r, and so on.
Chapter 2: Duration names notes and rests 85
Each of the following tables contains one type of note and its matching rest, with abbrevia-
tions that apply to both notes and rests. Just switch the part that means ‘note’ with the part
that means ‘rest’, for example:
• English: 16th note, 16th rest
• German: 32tel-Note, 32tel-Pause
• Finnish: 64-osanuotti, 64-osatauko
Editor’s n ote : I put a dash ‘-’ when I could not find a language-specific abbreviation for a
duration name. If you know of one that I missed, please send it to me, care of the lilypond-user
discussion list.
Lang. Note name Rest name Abbr.
US sixteenth n ot e sixteenth rest 16th note
UK se mi q uaver semiquaver rest -
ES semicorchea silencio de semicorchea -
IT semicroma pausa di semicroma -
FR double croche quart de soupir -
DE Sechzehntelnote Sechzehntelpause 16tel-Note
NL zestiende noot zestiende rust 16e noot
DK sekstendedelsnode sekstendedelspause -
SE sextondelsnot sextondelspaus -
FI kuudestoistaosanuotti kuudestoistaosatauko 16-osanuotti
Lang. Note name Rest name Abbr.
US thirty-second note thirty-second rest 32nd note
UK de mi se mi q uaver demisemiquaver rest -
ES fusa silencio de fusa -
IT biscroma pausa di biscroma -
FR triple croche huiti`eme de soupir -
DE Zweiunddreißigstelnote Zweiunddreißigstelpause 32tel-Note
NL tweeendertigste noot tweeendertigste rust 32e noot
DK toogtredivtedelsnode toogtredivtedelspause -
SE trettiotv˚aondelsnot trettiotv˚aondelspaus -
FI kolmaskymmeneskahdesosa-
nuotti
kolmaskymmeneskahdesosa-
tauko
32-osanuotti
Lang. Note name Rest name Abbr.
US sixty-fourth note sixty-fourth rest 64th note
UK he mi d emi se mi q uaver hemidemisemiquaver rest -
ES semifusa silencio de semifusa -
IT semibiscroma pausa di semibiscroma -
FR quadruple croche seizi`eme de soupir -
DE Vierundsechzigstelnote Vierundsechzigstelpause 64tel-Note
NL vierenzestigste noot vierenzes ti gs t e rust 64e noot
DK fireogtredsindstyven-
dedelsnode
fireogtredsindstyven-
dedelspause
-
SE sextiofj¨ardedelsn ot sextiofj¨ardedelspaus -
FI kuudeskymmenesnelj¨asosa-
nuotti
kuudeskymmenesnelj¨asosa-
tauko
64-osanuotti
Chapter 2: Duration names notes and rests 86
Lang. Note name Rest name Abbr.
US one-hundred-twenty-eighth
note
one-hundred-twenty-eighth
rest
128th note
UK se mi he mi de mi se mi q uaver semihemidemisemiquaver rest -
ES garrapatea silencio de garrapatea -
IT fusa pausa di fusa -
FR quintuple croche trente-deuxi`eme de soupir -
DE Hundertachtundzwanzigstel-
note
Hundertachtundzwanzigstel-
pause
128tel-Note
NL honderdachtentwintigste noot honderdachtentwintigste rust 128e noot
DK hundredeotteogtyvendedels-
node
hundredeotteogtyvendedels-
pause
-
SE hundratjugo˚attondelsnot hundratjugo˚attondelspaus -
FI sadaskahdeskymmenes-
kahdeksasosanuotti
sadaskahdeskymmenes-
kahdeksasosatauko
128-osanuotti
Lang. Note name Rest name Abbr.
US two-hundred -fi fty-sixth n ot e two-hundred-fifty-sixth rest 256th note
UK de mi se mi he mi d emi se mi q uaver demisemihemidemisemiquaver
rest
-
ES semigarrapatea silencio de semigarrapatea -
IT semifusa pausa di semifusa -
FR sextuple croche soixante-quatri`eme de soupir -
DE Zweihundert-
sechsundf¨unfzigstelnote
Zweihundert-
sechsundf¨unfzigstelpause
256tel-Note
NL tweehonderdzesenvij ft i gs te
noot
tweehonderdzesenvijftigste
rust
256e noot
DK tohundredeseksog-
halvtredsendedelsnode
tohundredeseksog-
halvtredsendedelspause
-
SE tv˚ahundrafemtiosj¨attedelsnot tv˚ahundrafemtiosj¨attedelspaus -
FI kahdessadasviideskymmenes-
kuudesosanuotti
kahdessadasviideskymmenes-
kuudesosatauko
256-osanuotti
See also
Section 1.195 [mensural notation], page 47.
87
3 Pitch names
EN ES I F D NL DK S FI
c do do ut C c c c c
c-sharp do sosteni do do diesis ut di`ese Cis cis cis ciss cis
d-flat re bemol re
bemolle
r´e b´emol Des des des dess des
d re re r´e D d d d d
d-sharp re sostenido re diesis re di`ese Dis dis dis diss dis
e-flat mi bemol mi
bemolle
mi b´emol Es es es ess es
e mi mi mi E e e e e
f-flat =
e
fa bemol fa
bemolle
fa b´emol Fes fes fes fess fes
f fa fa fa F f f f f
e-sharp
= f
mi sostenido m i di es is mi di`ese Eis eis eis eiss eis
f-sharp fa sostenido fa diesis fa di`ese Fi s fis fis fiss fis
g-flat sol bemol sol
bemolle
sol
b´emol
Ges ges ges gess ges
g sol sol sol G g g g g
g-sharp sol sost e ni d o sol diesis sol di`ese Gis gis gis giss gis
a-flat la bemol la
bemolle
la b´emol As as as ass as
a la la la A a a a a
a-sharp la sostenido la diesis la di`ese Ais ais ais aiss ais
b-flat si bemol si
bemolle
si b´emol B bes b b b
b si si si H b h h h
c-flat =
b
do bemol do
bemolle
ut b´emol Ces ces ces ce ss ces
b-sharp
= c
si sostenido si diesis si di`ese His bis his hiss his
88
4 Non-Western terms A-Z
4.1 bayati
This is a stub for bayati.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic key signatures” in Notation Ref er en ce.
4.2 iraq
This is a stub for iraq.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic key signatures” in Notation Ref er en ce.
4.3 kurd
This is a stub for kurd.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic key signatures” in Notation Ref er en ce.
4.4 makam
This is a stub for makam.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Turkish classical music” in Notati on Refer e nc e.
4.5 makamlar
This is a stub for makamlar.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Turkish classical music” in Notati on Refer e nc e.
4.6 maqam
This is a stub for maqam.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic music” in Notation Reference, Sec t ion “Arab i c key sig-
natures” in Notation Reference.
4.7 rast
This is a stub for rast.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic key signatures” in Notation Ref er en ce.
Chapter 4: Non-Western terms A-Z 89
4.8 semai
This is a stub for semai.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic key signatures” in Notation Ref er en ce.
4.9 sikah
This is a stub for sikah.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic key signatures” in Notation Ref er en ce.
4.10 taqasim
This is a stub for taqasim.
See also
Notation Reference: Section “Arabic key signatures” in Notation Ref er en ce.
90
Appendix A Liter at ure used
• Apel, Willi, ed. The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambr id ge: Belknap Press (Harvard
University Press), 1944.
• Krohn, Felix. Lyhyt musiikkioppi. Porvoo, Helsinki , Fi n l and : WSOY, 1976.
• Leuchtmann, Horst, ed. Polyglottes W¨orterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie. Kassel,
1980.
• Hornby, Albert Sydney. Oxford Advanced Learne r ’s Dicti on ary of Current English, 3rd ed.
London: Oxford University Press, 1974.
• Porter, Noah. Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary. Springfield, Massachusetts: G . &
C. Merriam Company, 1913.
• Randall, Don, ed. The New Harvard Dicti on ary of Music. Cambridge: Belknap Press
(Harvard Un i versity Pre ss) , 1986.
• Riemann, Hugo. Musik-lexicon. Berlin , 1929.
91
Appendix B GNU Free Documentation License
Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
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https://fsf.org/
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of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
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If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
The “Cover Tex t s” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or
Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License.
A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25
words.
Appendix B: GNU Free Documentation License 92
A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a m achine-readable copy, represented in a
format whose speci fic at i on is available to the general pub l ic , that is suitable for revising
the document straightfor wardly with ge ne ri c text editors or (for images composed of pixels)
generic p ai nt programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that i s
suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats
suitable for input t o text formatters. A copy made in an ot h er wi se Transparent file format
whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent
modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for
any s ub st antial amount of text. A c opy that is not “Tran sp ar ent” is called “Opaqu e”.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup,
Texinfo input format, LaT
E
X input format, SGML or XML using a p ub l i cl y availabl e DTD,
and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScrip t or PDF designed for human modifi-
cation. Examples of transparent image formats inc l ud e PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque
formats include proprietar y formats that can b e read and edited only by proprietary word
processors, SGML or XML f or which th e DTD and/or process i ng tools are not generally
available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.
The “Title Page” me ans , for a p ri nted book, the titl e page itself, plus such following pages
as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License req u i re s to appear in the ti t l e page.
For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, “Title Page” means the
text near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, precedin g the beginning of the
body of th e tex t .
The “publi sh er ” means any person or entity that distributes copies of the D ocument to the
public.
A section “Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document whose title either
is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in
another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such
as “Acknowledgements”, “De di c at ion s”, “Endorsements”, or “History”.) To “Preserve the
Title” of such a section when you modify the Docu me nt means that it remains a section
“Entitled XYZ” according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that
this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be
included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the
meaning of this License.
2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, eith er commercially or noncom-
mercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying
this License applies t o the D ocument are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no
other conditi on s whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures
to obstruct or cont r ol the reading or further copying of the copie s you make or distribute.
However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large
enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly
display copies.
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly h ave printed covers) of the
Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document’s license notice requires Cover
Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both
Appendix B: GNU Free Documentation License 93
covers must also clearl y and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front
cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible.
You may add other material on the covers i n addition. Copying wit h changes limited to
the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions,
can be t re at ed as verbatim copying in other res pect s.
If the required t ex t s for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you sh oul d put the
first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto
adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you
must eit h er include a machine-readabl e Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy,
or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general
network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a
complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the lat t er
option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque
copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the
stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy
(directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public.
It is r eq u est e d, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before
redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a ch an ce to provide you with an
updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions
of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the r ol e of th e Docum ent, thus licensing
distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In
addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
Document, and from those of previous vers ion s (which should, i f there were any, be
listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous
version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as author s, one or m ore persons or entities re spons ib l e for
authorship of the modifications in the Modi fie d Version, together with at least five of
the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal au t hor s, if it has fewer than
five), unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as t h e
publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modificati ons adjacent to the other copy-
right notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form
shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and requ ir e d Cover
Texts given in the Document’s license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve t he section Entit l e d “History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating
at least the title, year, new authors, and publishe r of the Modified Version as gi ven
on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled “History” in the Document, create
one stating the title, year, authors, and publ i sh er of the Document as given on its
Appendix B: GNU Free Documentation License 94
Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in th e previous
sentence.
J. Preserve the network locati on , if any, given in the Document for publ ic access to a
Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the
Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the “History”
section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four
years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to
gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”, Preserve the Title
of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the
contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their
titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles .
M. Delete any section Enti t l ed “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be included in
the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing s ec t ion to be Entitled “En dor se me nts” or to conflict in title
with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendi ces that qualify as
Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from th e Document, you may at your
option d esi gn at e some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to
the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be
distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provi de d it contains nothing but endorse-
ments of your Modified Version by various parties—for example, statements of peer revie w
or that the text has been approved by an organi zat i on as the authori t at i ve defin i ti on of a
standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up
to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified
Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be ad d ed
by (or through arrangements made by) any one enti ty. If the Document already includes
a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the
same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the
old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License gi ve perm i ssi on to
use their names for publicity for or to assert or imp l y endorsement of any Modified Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under
the terms defined in sect i on 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the
combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you
preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and mul t i p le identical
Invariant Secti on s may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant
Sections with the same name but different contents, make the tit l e of each such section
unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or
publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. M ake the same adjustment to
the section titles in the l i st of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined wor k .
Appendix B: GNU Free Documentation License 95
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in the various original
documents, forming one section Entitled “History”; likewise combine any sections Entitled
“Acknowledgements”, and any sections Entitled “Dedications”. You must delete all sections
Entitled “Endorsements.”
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collect i on consist in g of the Document and other documents released under
this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the vari ous documents with
a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this
License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually
under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document,
and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of t h e Document or its derivatives with other s ep arat e and independent
documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribut i on medium, is called an
“aggregate” if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to l i mi t the legal
rights of the compilation’s users beyon d what the individual works permit. When the
Document is i n cl u de d in an aggregate, this License does not apply to t h e other works in
the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document,
then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover
Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electron i c form. Otherwise t h ey must
appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considere d a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the
Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with tran sl at i ons
requires special permission from their copyright hold er s, but you may i nc l ud e translations
of some or all Invariant Sect ion s in addition to the origi n al versions of these Invariant
Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all t he license notices in
the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers , provided that you also include the ori gi nal
English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In
case of a disagreement between the trans lat i on and the original version of t h i s License or a
notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, or “History”,
the requirement (s ect i on 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing
the actual title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly pro-
vided under this License. Any attempt ot h er wi se to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute
it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
However, if you cease al l viol at i on of this License, then your license from a par t ic ul ar copy-
right holder is reinst at e d (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly
and finally terminates your license, and (b) perman ently, if the copyright holder fails to
notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation.
Moreover, your license f r om a particular copyright hold er is reinstated permanently if the
copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first
time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright
holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice.
Appendix B: GNU Free Documentation License 96
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties
who have received copies or rights from you under t hi s License. If your right s have been
terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same
material does not give you any rights to use it.
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the G NU Free Doc-
umentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the
present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. S ee https://
www.gnu.org/licenses/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document
specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or any lat er ver si on ” applies
to it, you have the option of following the t er ms an d c ond i t ion s ei t h er of t h at s peci fi ed
version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software
Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may
choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free S oftwar e Foundation . If t he
Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future ver si on s of this License can be
used, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a vers ion permanently authorizes you
to choose th at version for the D ocum ent.
11. RELICENSING
“Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or “MMC Site”) means any World Wide We b
server that publishes copyrightable work s and also provid es prominent facilities for anybody
to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A
“Massive Multiauthor Collaborati on ” (or “MMC”) contained in the site means any set of
copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
“CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license published
by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal pl ac e of
business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license
published by that same organization.
“Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of
another Document.
An MMC is “eligibl e for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License, and if all works th at
were first published under this Lice ns e somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently
incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or i nvariant sections,
and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.
The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under CC-BY-
SA on the same si t e at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for
relicensing.
Appendix B: GNU Free Documentation License 97
ADDENDUM: How to use thi s License for your documents
To u se this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document
and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
Free Documentation License''.
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the
“with. . .Texts.” li n e wi t h th i s:
with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with
the Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts
being list.
If you have Invariant Secti on s without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three,
merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing
these examples in par al le l under your choice of free software li ce ns e, such as the GNU General
Public License, to permit their use in free software.
