confused; loss of self-esteem; anxiety and insecurity; negative effects on concentration and
learning in school; refusal to attend school or avoidance of school or specific places at school;
feelings of stupidity, shame, unattractiveness, and failure; psychosomatic symptoms such as
stomach aches and headaches; depression; physical injury; perpetration of violent behavior; and,
at the extreme, suicide or perpetration of homicide (Fried and Fried 1996; Kaufman et al. 2000;
Olweus 1992; Olweus et al. 1999; O'Moore and Kirkham 2001; Rigby 1998). Perpetrators of
bullying are more likely to engage in other antisocial/delinquent behavior (e.g., vandalism,
shoplifting, truancy, and drug use) into adulthood, to be convicted of crimes by age 24, and to
engage in serious violence during adolescence and adulthood (Farrington 1993; Farrington 1995;
Olweus et al. 1999). In addition to its impacts on the individual level, bullying also affects the
school climate more generally. Students tend to feel less safe and are less satisfied with school
life in schools where bully/victim problems occur, although there is some question about
whether bullying is the cause, the effect, or both, with respect to school-related stress and
alienation (Natvig et al. 2001). In schools where bully/victim problems are ignored, students
may start to regard bullying behavior as acceptable. This may result in more bullying behavior as
well as other, possibly more severe, problems (Olweus et al. 1999).
When bullying involves actual or attempted violence, consequences can be severe and
long-lasting, as indicated by information on the consequences of victimization, particularly
violent victimization, in adolescence and adulthood. The adverse impacts of victimization,
particularly violent victimization in adolescence, are pervasive, severe, and sometimes enduring,
consisting not only of physical injury, financial loss, and emotional distress, but also including
elevated risks of subsequent victimization (which may result in further injury and also
exacerbate the emotional distress from earlier victimizations), problem substance use, and
criminal behavior, a cost which goes beyond the initial victim of crime to new victims, who in
turn may perpetuate the cycle of harm and personal suffering (Berton and Stabb 1996; Blumberg
1979; Boney-McCoy and Finkelhor 1995; Bureau of Justice Statistics 1994; Kilpatrick et al.
1987; Klaus 1994; Laub 1997; Lurigio 1987; Menard 2000; Menard 2002; Miller et al. 1996;
Norris et al. 1997; Resick and Nishith 1997; Simon et al. 2001). To the extent that any program
has an impact on bullying, it should, based on both logic and past empirical research, also have
an impact on violent victimization, which, as noted earlier, is behaviorally more specific but
contextually broader than bullying. As a consequence, a successful intervention to reduce
bullying should directly result in decreased injury, correspondingly result in decreased costs
associated with treating injury, and also at least indirectly reduce the risks of future violent
victimization, future violent offending, and future substance use and mental health problems,
thus further reducing injury and the costs associated with injury from violence.
Risk Factors for Bullying
Bullying takes place in the classroom, on the playground, in hallways, in gyms, in locker
rooms, and in bathrooms. Bullying is two to three times more likely to occur at school as on the
way to and from school (Olweus 1993; Olweus et al. 1999). There are individual, familial, peer,
and school factors that can place a youth at risk for participating in bullying behavior. Generally,
boys are much more likely to engage in bullying behavior than girls. Girls who bully are less
likely to be physically abusive than boys are. Although most bullying occurs between students in
4
This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.