The Ernest Hemingway Primer
By Timeless Hemingway
Copyright © 2009 Timeless Hemingway Publications. All rights reserved.
Contents
I. Biography
II. Books by Ernest Hemingway
III. The Life: Top 5 Frequently Asked Questions
IV. The Literature: Top 5 Frequently Asked Questions
V. Notable Quotables
VI. Further Reading
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Biography I.
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois to Dr. Clarence Edmonds
Hemingway and Grace Hall Hemingway. The second of six children, Ernest enjoyed an adventurous boyhood,
fishing and hunting with his father in the northern woods of Michigan. He attended Oak Park High School where
he excelled in his classes, particularly English. He tried his hand at football and swimming, edited the school
paper (the Trapeze), and contributed pieces to the school's literary magazine (the Tabula). After graduating high
school, Ernest traveled to Kansas City and worked as a cub reporter for The Kansas City Star. In 1918, he
began service as an ambulance driver for the Italian army. On July 8, he was wounded at Fossalta on the Italian
Piave while delivering chocolates, cigarettes, and postcards to soldiers.
He married Elizabeth Hadley Richardson on September 3, 1921. The newlyweds soon entered the
literary community of Paris, living off of Hadley's trust fund and Ernest's pay as a foreign correspondent for the
Toronto Star. The 1920's were extremely productive writing years for Hemingway. Three Stories and Ten Poems
was published in 1923, In Our Time in 1925. In 1926, The Torrents of Spring and the widely successful novel,
The Sun Also Rises were published. A collection of short stories titled Men Without Women followed in 1927.
This year also signified the end of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley and his subsequent marriage to Pauline
Pfeiffer on May 10, 1927. Ernest and Pauline would spend the majority of their years together at 907 Whitehead
Street in Key West, Florida. On December 6, 1928, Hemingway was dealt a devastating emotional blow as his
father, suffering from severe diabetes and concerned about his financial future, shot himself.
Hemingway continued to write producing what many critics still feel is the best novel ever written about
World War I. A Farewell to Arms was published in 1929 and solidified Hemingway's reputation as one the
greatest writers of his generation. The 1930's would see the publication of Hemingway's bible on bullfighting,
Death in the Afternoon (1932), a recount of his African safari in Green Hills of Africa (1935) and two famous short
stories, "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" (1936) and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" (1936).
In the late 1930's, Hemingway ventured to Spain to give his encouragement to the Loyalists fighting in
the Spanish Civil War. His experiences as a war correspondent for the North American Newspaper Alliance
would inspire his other great war novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls. Exactly one month after the 1940 publication of
For Whom the Bell Tolls, Hemingway married fellow writer and war correspondent Martha Ellis Gellhorn. It was a
marriage that would last only five years. He married fourth and final wife Mary Welsh Monks on March 14, 1946.
For the next fourteen years, the couple would live in Hemingway's Finca Vigía (Lookout Farm) in San Francisco
de Paula, Cuba.
After a disappointing reception of his 1950 novel, Across the River and into the Trees, Hemingway rallied
producing The Old Man and the Sea (1952), a short work that earned him a 1953 Pulitzer Prize and ultimately
the 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature. Physically unnerved from two plane crashes earlier that year, Hemingway
was unable to attend the prize ceremonies. He would live another seven years.
On July 2, 1961, in his home in Ketchum, Idaho, Hemingway died of a self-inflicted shotgun wound to
the head. His wife Mary found him and relayed word of her husband's death to the world. Ernest Hemingway
was two and a half weeks shy of his sixty-second birthday. Three sons and millions of loyal readers would
preserve his memory.
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Books by Ernest Hemingway II.
Three Stories and Ten Poems. Paris: Contact Publishing Co., 1923.
in our time. Paris: Three Mountains Press, 1924.
In Our Time. New York: Boni & Liveright, 1925.
The Torrents of Spring. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1926.
The Sun Also Rises. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1926.
Men Without Women. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1927.
A Farewell to Arms. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929.
Death in the Afternoon. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932.
Winner Take Nothing. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1933.
Green Hills of Africa. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1935.
To Have and Have Not. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1937.
The Fifth Column and the First Forty-nine Stories. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1938.
For Whom the Bell Tolls. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1940.
Across the River and into the Trees. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1950.
The Old Man and the Sea. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1952.
A Moveable Feast. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1964.
Islands in the Stream. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970.
The Dangerous Summer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1985.
The Garden of Eden. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1986.
True at First Light. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1999.
Under Kilimanjaro. Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2005.
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The Life: Top 5 Frequently Asked Questions III.
What were some of Ernest Hemingway's nicknames?
Ernest Hemingway had many nicknames throughout his lifetime. To his sister Sunny, he was
"Oinbones." While in high school, he gave himself the nickname of "Hemingstein." Because of his love of boxing
and the great outdoors, he became known as "Champ." His first wife Hadley and son John (by Hadley)
affectionately referred to him as either "Ernestoic," "Tatie," "Tiny," or "Wax Puppy." Even the child shared in the
fun, acquiring his own nickname of "Bumby." Hemingway was also known in some circles as "Wemedge." More
obvious nicknames included "Ernie," "Hem," and "Hemmy." The most enduring and most recognized nickname
for Hemingway would be "Papa."
What does "Papa Hemingway" signify?
For a long time critics and scholars have found two Hemingways emerging. The first is Ernest
Hemingway, the brilliant writer, "the most important author living today, the outstanding author since the death of
Shakespeare" according to John O'Hara. The second is Papa Hemingway, "Papa" having long signified
Hemingway's more masculine public alias. Whether it was "Papa" hunting in Africa, or "Papa" in Spain watching
the bullfights, or "Papa" at a café in Paris chatting with acquaintances over a bottle of cognac, this was the public
image Hemingway projected to others, rough and tough, a real "man's man." To those who knew Hemingway
more personally, "Papa" might have been used as a term of affection, an intimate reference to the softer, gentler
Hemingway that they had all come to know. In his biography, Carlos Baker explores some of the darker
connotations of "Papa," as he notes the phrase, "Yes, Papa," which according to Baker was suggestive of
"subservience" and "brought out the less admirable traits in his character."
I see the term "Papa" encapsulating all of these qualities, as well as Hemingway's unique need to see
himself as a father type figure. He once had an obsession with a young and beautiful Venetian girl named
Adriana. She too saw him as fulfilling this father type role (incidentally, she would also later commit suicide).
Hemingway frequently referred to certain women in his life as "Daughter" and had hoped of having a female
child of his own one day.
How do we explain Ernest Hemingway's many marriages?
A few of Ernest Hemingway's contemporaries had theories as to why the great author was so prone to
walking down the aisle. F. Scott Fitzgerald felt that Hemingway needed a new woman for every big book and
William Faulkner perceptively noted: "Hemingway's mistake was that he thought he had to marry all of them."
Hemingway married four times and divorced three times. According to A. E. Hotchner, Hemingway supposedly
was considering a fourth divorce. In a new preface to Papa Hemingway, Hotchner reports that Hemingway once
told him: "I wish I could leave her, I really do, but I'm too old now to afford a fourth divorce and the hell Mary
would put me through."
By most accounts, Hemingway was not the easiest man to keep house with. He also had a tendency of
falling out of love once married or acting in a manner, which left his spouse with no other choice but to fall out of
love with him. Towards the end of his life, what Hemingway needed more than a live-in wife was a live-in nurse,
and unfortunately for Mary, she had to fill this roll. Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers has noted that Mary
"could take an infinite amount of abuse." She was determined to be the final Mrs. Hemingway. Mary got her
wish, but at what a price.
Out of his four wives, I think Hadley (his first wife) was the one he cared for most. Hemingway never
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forgave himself for how he had betrayed her. For a further discussion of Hemingway's relationship with his
wives, see Bernice Kert's The Hemingway Women.
How has Ernest Hemingway been commercialized?
In 1992, Ernest Hemingway's sons established Hemingway, Ltd. for the purpose of licensing their
father's name and image. From this venture has come a vast selection of products.
Ernest Hemingway has his own line of clothing, furniture, hunting gear, fishing tackle, pens (he wrote in
pencil), and even a teddy bear (manufactured by Boyds Bears) dressed in a hunting vest and hat and christened
with the name, "Hemingway K. Grizzman." There is a house design in Hemingway's name as well as hardwood
flooring and wallpapers in the so-called style of Hemingway. Other items that have been scheduled for possible
release include pillows, desk sets, African masks, and picture frames. Scott Donaldson notes in Hemingway vs.
Fitzgerald: The Rise and Fall of a Literary Friendship: "According to Marla A. Metzner, president of Fashion
Licensing of America, thirteen separate manufacturers have opted to use Hemingway's name and image in
connection with their products."
When it comes to biographies, Hemingway truly is "the undisputed champion." More than a dozen
biographies have been written about him. Add to that, the dozen or so memoirs authored by close friends and
relatives.
The legacy that Hemingway himself would likely be most proud of is the fact that the majority of his work
is still in print. Worldwide sales of his books show that he remains a powerful literary force.
How do we explain Ernest Hemingway's timelessness?
During a 1999 Hemingway conference at the JFK Library in Boston, MA, one of the topics of discussion
among the panelists was the question of Hemingway's timelessness both as writer and celebrity. Why has this
20th century American author endured while so many others have disappeared into a black hole of obscurity?
One speaker answered the question by saying, "we all write through Hemingway."
Ernest Hemingway's style of writing continues to be emulated today. The old joke about 20th century
writers is that they can be divided into two distinct groups: those trying to write like Ernest Hemingway and those
trying not to. Hemingway's famous commentaries on the process of writing, his advice to beginners, and his
criticisms to his contemporaries are simply unparalleled. He is considered by many the most well recognized
writer of the 20th century and perhaps the best American writer ever to put pencil to paper. Aside from his
innovative style, the themes of his works are very human and enduring. From death to loss to perseverance to
courage, Hemingway writes of the subjects that affect us all.
I am reminded of the Public Broadcasting Service, an organization that takes great pride in creating what
they themselves call "non disposable television," which is television that a person can come back to again and
again. The same thing might be said of Ernest Hemingway's literature. It too is "non disposable." One can reread
Hemingway and always find something new and compelling. This does not apply to every author. One of
Hemingway's major criticisms against fellow writer William Faulkner was the immense difficulty of rereading him.
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The Literature: Top 5 Frequently Asked Questions IV.
What is the "Hemingway code hero"?
The phrase, "Hemingway code hero" originated with scholar Philip Young. He uses it to describe a
Hemingway character who "offers up and exemplifies certain principles of honor, courage, and endurance which
in a life of tension and pain make a man a man."
It's important to note the difference between the "Hemingway hero" and the "Hemingway code hero."
Some people (myself included) have fallen into the habit of using these terms interchangeably. The "Hemingway
hero" is a living breathing character essential to the story's narrative. Nick Adams is an example of a
"Hemingway hero." The "Hemingway code hero" is often times a living breathing character as well, but he
doesn't always have to take a human form. Sometimes the "Hemingway code hero" simply represents an ideal
that the "Hemingway hero" tries to live up to, a code he tries to follow. An example of the "Hemingway code
hero" (in human form) would be white hunter Robert Wilson from "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber."
To simplify the theory some, Earl Rovit developed a unique naming system. He refers to the "Hemingway hero"
as the tyro and the "Hemingway code hero" as the tutor.
For a more detailed discussion of the "Hemingway code hero," you should see Philip Young's 1966
book, Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration (in particular the chapter titled, "The Hero and the Code"). See also
Earl Rovit's book, Ernest Hemingway (in particular the chapter titled, "Of Tyros and Tutors").
How is Ernest Hemingway's life reflected in his writing?
Many parallels have been drawn between Ernest Hemingway's life and fiction. Scholars generally agree
that Nick Adams is the character who most closely represents Hemingway the man. There is some dissension,
however, regarding whether it is in fact Hemingway's personality or simply his experiences which are being
personified by his characters. Most of Hemingway's fiction is based on his own personal experience. When
creating the fiction, he invents from this experience.
Read anything by scholar Philip Young, particularly Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration. Young has
done some interesting work in regards to the parallels between Hemingway's life and fiction. He pays particular
attention to the injury Hemingway suffered at age eighteen when he served as an ambulance driver for the
Italian army, and how and why this episode resurfaces in his literature.
Also, Carlos Baker's biography, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story provides a detailed account of the many
parallels existing between the events in Hemingway's life and the events transpiring in his stories.
What is Ernest Hemingway's "nada" philosophy?
The Hemingway hero is a restless man, doesn't like the night, often will sleep through the day and stay
awake during the night. The darkness of the night represents nothingness, the state in which things will be when
one is dead, absolute oblivion. Darkness and sleep must be avoided, for in these states there is nothingness,
"nada." Hemingway's discourse on "nada" is his way of exploring the darker side of his spiritual self.
Examples of "Nada":
In "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place," the idea of "nada" causes the older waiter to contemplate suicide, to
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question whether or not the example of the old man is one in which he should follow. He doesn't follow the old
man's example, and then, judging from the last sentence of the story, feels the need to make excuses for his
cowardice.
In "The Killers," Ole Andreson shows similar cowardice in his unwillingness to leave his room. He simply
waits for the killers to come and get him. This is his response to "nada," to give up, to do nothing in this world of
nothingness. Death is the ultimate fate of everyone. He accepts that. Nick doesn't want to accept it and is
propelled into action, telling George that he is going to leave town.
What are a few characteristics of Ernest Hemingway's writing style?
Below are some characteristics:
Stark minimalist nature
Grade school-like grammar
Austere word choice
Unvarnished descriptions
Short, declarative sentences
Uses language accessible to the common reader
Ernest Hemingway is a master of dialogue. It's not so much that he is recreating precisely how
individuals speak, but through his brilliant use of repetition, he is able to make the reader remember what has
been said. Hemingway's style of writing was probably most influenced by his early work as a cub reporter for
The Kansas City Star. There he was forced to adhere to a stylebook for young reporters, which included the
following advice: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English, not forgetting to strive
for smoothness. Be positive, not negative."
Hemingway's words are essentially just words like any other words, but the way he stirs them together is
his own unique formula, a stylistic recipe that no other writer has been able to recreate. There are sentences that
only Hemingway could get away with because we know that Hemingway wrote them. Take this short sentence
from For Whom the Bell Tolls: "He was dead and that was all." This is and always will be a Hemingway
sentence. For a reader to immediately recognize that "Hemingway wrote this" by reading the words alone is a
remarkable legacy for a writer to leave. Hemingway is truly alive in his words because his words are truly his. His
style is uniquely his. This is what makes him a writer in the truest sense.
How is the "iceberg principle" used in Ernest Hemingway's works?
Ernest Hemingway's theory of omission is widely referred to as the "iceberg principle." He explains this
principle in chapter 16 of his 1932 book, Death in the Afternoon. Essentially, the principle states that by omitting
certain parts of a story, a writer actually strengthens that story. The writer must be conscious of these omissions
and be writing true enough in order for the reader to sense the omitted parts. When the reader senses the
omitted parts, a greater perception and understanding for the story can be achieved.
Let's apply Hemingway's "iceberg principle" to the endings of some of his most famous works. At the end
of The Sun Also Rises, Jake Barnes and Brett Ashley contemplate a life together. At the end of A Farewell to
Arms, Frederic Henry walks back to his hotel alone in the rain. At the end of For Whom the Bell Tolls, Robert
Jordan awaits his impending death. The fate of these characters is never directly stated. Hemingway doesn't tell
the reader that Jake Barnes and Brett Ashley will never be together. Instead, it is "pretty to think" that they could
have had a damned good life together. Hemingway doesn't tell the reader what lies in store for Frederic Henry
after he leaves his dead lover in the hospital. Does his walk alone in the rain represent emotional freedom or
devastation? Robert Jordan is surely to die at the end of For Whom the Bell Tolls, but Hemingway leaves the
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reader with the image of Jordan's "heart beating" against the forest floor.
Hemingway disliked discussions regarding the symbolism in his works. The "iceberg principle," however,
by its very nature, invites symbolic interpretations and I think Hemingway acknowledged this in his own subtle
way. Fraser Drew once quoted him as saying: "No good writer ever prepared his symbols ahead of time and
wrote his book about them, but out of a good book which is true to life symbols may arise and be profitably
explored if not over-emphasized."
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Notable Quotables V.
"There are only three sports: bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are
merely games."
This is one in a long list of quotations mysteriously attributed to Ernest Hemingway. While the general
public seem to agree that this is in fact a Hemingway quotation, scholars have some reservations and for good
reason. The early Hemingway did not believe that bullfighting was a sport. For him it was a tragedy. See his
October 20, 1923 article titled "Bullfighting A Tragedy" reprinted in By-Line: Ernest Hemingway Selected Articles
and Dispatches of Four Decades edited by William White. Hemingway reiterates his beliefs regarding the
tragedy of bullfighting in his 1932 book, Death in the Afternoon.
In July of 2006, Gerald Roush, a visitor to Timeless Hemingway, provided a possible source for the
"three sports" quotation. He cited a story titled "Blood Sport" by Ken Purdy, which originally appeared in the July
27, 1957 edition of the Saturday Evening Post. The story is reprinted in Ken Purdy's Book of Automobiles (1972).
Gerald provided a scan of where the quotation appeared and it reads as follows: " 'There are three sports,' she
remembered Helmut Ovden saying. 'Bullfighting, motor racing, mountain climbing. All the rest are recreations.' "
Gerald noted that the character of Helmut Ovden is modelled after Ernest Hemingway. This could explain why
the quote has been so widely attributed to Hemingway over the years.
In May of 2007, Rocky Entriken wrote to Timeless Hemingway with another possible author of the
quotation: "As I am told, the quote belongs to Barnaby Conrad, a writer of the same era as Hemingway and a
San Francisco raconteur of some note. Mostly he did magazine articles but his books include The Death of
Manolete. My source is Dan Gerber, yet another writer of the era."
"Grace under pressure"
The phrase "grace under pressure" first gained notoriety when Ernest Hemingway used it in a profile
piece written by Dorothy Parker. Parker asked Hemingway: "Exactly what do you mean by 'guts'?" Hemingway
replied: "I mean, grace under pressure." The profile is titled, "The Artist's Reward" and it appeared in the New
Yorker on November 30, 1929. The first published use of the phrase, however, was in an April 20, 1926 letter
Hemingway wrote F. Scott Fitzgerald. The letter is reprinted in Ernest Hemingway: Selected Letters 1917-1961
edited by Carlos Baker, pages 199-201.
"For sale: Baby shoes, never worn."
As legend has it, Ernest Hemingway was sitting with writers at the Algonquin Hotel and bet them that he
could write a short story in only six words. He won the bet with this clever creation: "For sale: Baby shoes, never
worn."
Snopes.com suggests that the six-word story did not originate with Hemingway, but rather with a one-
man play titled Papa written by John deGroot. Commenting on the authenticity of his play, deGroot said:
"Everything in the play is based on events recounted by Ernest Hemingway and those who knew him. Whether
or not all these events actually happened is something we'll never know truly. But Hemingway and those who
knew him claimed they did."
In January 2013, quoteinvestigator.com thoroughly researched the origins of this quotation and
concluded that there is "no substantive evidence that Ernest Hemingway composed a six or seven word story
about an unworn pair of baby shoes or an unused baby carriage."
Four things one must do to become a man
The four things are: plant a tree, fight a bull, write a novel, and father a son. Whether Hemingway
actually said this is questionable. A source for the statement has never been found.
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Ernest Hemingway's Nobel Prize acceptance speech
(Read for him by John C. Cabot, the then US Ambassador to Sweden, December 10, 1954)
Members of the Swedish Academy, Ladies and Gentlemen:
Having no facility for speech-making and no command of oratory nor any domination of rhetoric, I wish
to thank the administrators of the generosity of Alfred Nobel for this prize.
No writer who knows the great writers who did not receive the prize can accept it other than with humility.
There is no need to list these writers. Everyone here may make his own list according to his knowledge and his
conscience.
It would be impossible for me to ask the Ambassador of my country to read a speech in which a writer
said all of the things which are in his heart. Things may not be immediately discernible in what a man writes, and
in this sometimes he is fortunate; but eventually they are quite clear and by these and the degree of alchemy
that he possesses he will endure or be forgotten.
Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if
they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates.
For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day.
For a true writer each book should be a new beginning where he tries again for something that is beyond
attainment. He should always try for something that has never been done or that others have tried and failed.
Then sometimes, with great luck, he will succeed.
How simple the writing of literature would be if it were only necessary to write in another way what has
been well written. It is because we have had such great writers in the past that a writer is driven far out past
where he can go, out to where no one can help him.
I have spoken too long for a writer. A writer should write what he has to say and not speak it. Again I
thank you.
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Further Reading VI.
On The Sun Also Rises
Balassi, William. "The Trail to The Sun Also Rises: The First Week of Writing." In Hemingway: Essays of
Reassessment. Ed. Frank Scafella. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. 33-51.
Benson, Jackson J. "Roles and the Masculine Writer." In Brett Ashley. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea
House Publishers, 1991. 76-85.
Davidson, Arnold E. and Cathy. "Decoding the Hemingway Hero in The Sun Also Rises." In New Essays on the
Sun Also Rises. Ed. Linda Wagner-Martin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. 83-105.
Doody, Terrence. "Hemingway's Style and Jake's Narration." The Journal of Narrative Technique 4 (1974): 212-
225.
Elliott, Ira. "Performance Art: Jake Barnes and 'Masculine' Signification in The Sun Also Rises." American
Literature 67 (March 1995): 77-94.
Farrell, James T. "The Sun Also Rises." In Ernest Hemingway: The Man and His Work. Ed. John K. M.
McCaffery. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1950. 221-225.
Ramsey, Paul. "Hemingway as Moral Thinker: A Look at Two Novels." In The Twenties: Poetry and Prose:
Twenty Critical Essays. Ed. Richard E. Langford and William E. Taylor. Florida: Everett Edwords Press, 1966.
92-94.
Rovit, Earl. "On Psychic Retrenchment in Hemingway." In Hemingway: Essays of Reassessment. Ed. Frank
Scafella. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. 181-188.
Rudat, Wolfgang E. H. "Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: Masculinity, Feminism, and Gender-Role Reversal."
American Imago 47 (Spring 1990): 43-68.
Spilka, Mark. "The Death of Love in The Sun Also Rises." In Ernest Hemingway: Critiques of Four Major Novels.
Ed. Carlos Baker. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962. 18-25.
Stephens, Robert O. "Ernest Hemingway and the Rhetoric of Escape." In The Twenties: Poetry and Prose:
Twenty Critical Essays. Ed. Richard E. Langford and William E. Taylor. Florida: Everett Edwords Press, 1966.
82-86.
Vance, William L. "Implications of Form in The Sun Also Rises." In The Twenties: Poetry and Prose: Twenty
Critical Essays. Ed. Richard E. Langford and William E. Taylor. Florida: Everett Edwords Press, 1966. 87-91.
On A Farewell to Arms
Cunningham, Bonnie Wilde. "Autobiography and Anaesthesia: Ernest Hemingway, Storm Jameson, and Me."
Women's Studies 24 (September 1995): 615-629.
Hatten, Charles. "The Crisis of Masculinity, Reified Desire, and Catherine Barkley in A Farewell to Arms."
Journal of the History of Sexuality 4 (July 1993): 76-98.
Lewis, Robert W. A Farewell to Arms: The War of the Words. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1992.
Monteiro, George, Ed. Critical Essays on Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms. New York: G. K. Hall, 1994.
Oldsey, Bernard. Hemingway's Hidden Craft: The Writing of A Farewell to Arms. University Park: The
Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979.
Phelan, James. "The Concept of Voice, the Voices of Frederic Henry, and the Structure of A Farewell to Arms."
In Hemingway: Essays of Reassessment. Ed. Frank Scafella. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. 214-232.
Reynolds, Michael S. Hemingway's First War: The Making of A Farewell to Arms. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 1976.
Robinson, Forrest D. "Frederick Henry: The Hemingway Hero as Storyteller." CEA Critic 34 (1972): 13-16.
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West, Ray B. "A Farewell to Arms." In Ernest Hemingway: Critiques of Four Major Novels. Ed. Carlos Baker.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962. 28-36.
On For Whom the Bell Tolls
Josephs, Allen. For Whom the Bell Tolls: Ernest Hemingway's Undiscovered Country. New York: Twayne
Publishers, 1994.
On The Old Man and the Sea
Bloom, Harold, Ed. The Old Man and the Sea (Modern Critical Interpretations). Philadelphia: Chelsea House
Publishers, 1999.
Brenner, Gerry. The Old Man and the Sea: Story of a Common Man. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1991.
On the Short Stories
Benson, Jackson J. The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays. Durham, North Carolina: Duke
University Press, 1975.
. New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham, North Carolina: Duke
University Press, 1990.
DeFalco, Joseph. The Hero in Hemingway's Short Stories. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963.
Flora, Joseph M. Ernest Hemingway: A Study of the Short Fiction. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989.
Reynolds, Michael S., Ed. Critical Essays on Ernest Hemingway's In Our Time. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1983.
On the Nick Adams Stories
Boutelle, Ann Edwards. "Hemingway and 'Papa': Killing of the Father in the Nick Adams Fiction." Journal of
Modern Literature 9 (1981-2): 133-146.
Flora, Joseph M. Hemingway's Nick Adams. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992.
McSweeney, Kerry. "The First Hemingway Hero." The Dalhousie Review 52 (1972): 309-314.
Strychacz, Thomas. "In Our Time: Out of Season." In The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. Ed.
Scott Donaldson. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 55-86.
Young, Philip. "Adventures of Nick Adams." In Hemingway: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Robert Weeks.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1962. 95-111.
Books Discussing Many Hemingway Works
Brenner, Gerry. Concealments in Hemingway's Works. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1983.
Fiedler, Leslie. Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Criterion Books, 1960.
Gurko, Leo. Ernest Hemingway and the Pursuit of Heroism. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968.
Rovit, Earl. Ernest Hemingway. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1963.
Waldhorn, Arthur. A Reader's Guide to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1972.
Wylder, Delbert E. Hemingway's Heroes. New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press, 1969.
Young, Philip. Ernest Hemingway. New York: Rinehart, 1952.
. Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press,
1966.
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On Hemingway's Form and Style
Anderson, Charles R. "Hemingway's Other Style." In Ernest Hemingway: Critiques of Four Major Novels. Ed.
Carlos Baker. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962. 41-46.
Bridgman, Richard. The Colloquial Style in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966.
Goodman, Paul. "The Sweet Style of Ernest Hemingway." In Ernest Hemingway: Five Decades of Criticism. Ed.
Linda Welshimer Wagner. Michigan: Michigan State University Press, 1974. 153-160.
Levin, Harry. "Observations on the Style of Ernest Hemingway." In Hemingway and His Critics. Ed. Carlos Baker.
New York: Hill and Wang, Inc., 1961. 93-115.
Nahan, Chaman Lal. The Narrative Pattern in Ernest Hemingway's Fiction. Rutherford NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson
University Press, 1971.
Voss, Arthur. The American Short Story: A Critical Survey. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1973.
On Hemingway's Literary Influences
Brasch, James D. and Joseph Sigman. Hemingway's Library: A Composite Record. New York: Garland, 1981.
Reynolds, Michael S. Hemingway's Reading 1910-1940: An Inventory. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1981.
Biographies
Baker, Carlos. Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969.
Burgess, Anthony. Ernest Hemingway and His World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1978.
Griffin, Peter. Along With Youth: Hemingway, the Early Years. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
. Less Than a Treason: Hemingway in Paris. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Lynn, Kenneth S. Hemingway. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987.
Mellow, James R. Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1992.
Meyers, Jeffrey. Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Harper and Row, 1985.
Reynolds, Michael S. The Young Hemingway. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986.
. Hemingway: The Paris Years. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.
. Hemingway: The American Homecoming. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992.
. Hemingway: The 1930's. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1997.
. Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1999.
Memoirs
Callaghan, Morley. That Summer in Paris: Memories of Tangled Friendships with Hemingway, Fitzgerald, and
Some Others. New York: Coward-McCann, 1963.
Hemingway, Gregory H. Papa: A Personal Memoir. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1976.
Hemingway, Jack. Misadventures of a Fly Fisherman: My Life With and Without Papa. Dallas: Taylor Publishing
Company, 1986.
Hemingway, Leicester. My Brother, Ernest Hemingway. Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1962.
Hemingway, Mary Welsh. How It Was. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976.
Hotchner, A. E. Papa Hemingway. New York: Random House, Inc., 1966.
Miller, Madelaine Hemingway. Ernie: Hemingway's Sister "Sunny" Remembers. New York: Crown Publishers,
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Inc., 1975.
Sanford, Marcelline Hemingway. At the Hemingways: A Family Portrait. Boston: Little, Brown and Company,
1962.
Pictorial Biographies
Hotchner, A. E. Hemingway and His World. New York: The Vendome Press, 1989.
Lania, Leo. Hemingway: A Pictorial Biography. New York: The Viking Press, 1961.
Fuentes, Norberto. Ernest Hemingway Rediscovered. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988.
Sandison, David. Ernest Hemingway: An Illustrated Biography. Illinois: Chicago Review Press, 1999.
Voss, Frederick. Picturing Hemingway: A Writer in His Time. New Haven, CT: Smithsonian National Portrait
Gallery, in association with Yale University Press, 1999.
Interviews
Brian, Denis. The True Gen: An Intimate Portrait of Ernest Hemingway by Those Who Knew Him. New York:
Grove Press, 1988.
Bruccoli, Matthew J., Ed. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986.
Plath, James and Frank Simons. Remembering Ernest Hemingway. Florida: Ketch & Yawl Press, 1999.
Journalism
Bruccoli, Matthew J., Ed. Ernest Hemingway's Apprenticeship: Oak Park, 1916-1917. Washington: NCR
Microcard Editions, 1971.
Bruccoli, Matthew J., Ed. Ernest Hemingway, Cub Reporter; Kansas City Star Stories. Pittsburgh: University of
Pittsburgh Press, 1970.
White, William., Ed. By-Line: Selected Articles and Dispatches of Four Decades. New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons, 1967.
White, William., Ed. Dateline, Toronto: The Complete Toronto Star Dispatches, 1920-1924. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1985.
Letters
Baker, Carlos., Ed. Ernest Hemingway: Selected Letters 1917-1961. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981.
Bruccoli, Matthew J., Ed. The Only Thing that Counts: The Ernest Hemingway-Maxwell Perkins
Correspondence, 1925-1947. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1996.
Bruccoli, Matthew J., Ed. Fitzgerald and Hemingway: A Dangerous Friendship. New York: Carroll and Graf,
1994.
Defazio III, Albert J., Ed. Dear Papa, Dear Hotch: The Correspondence of Ernest Hemingway and A. E.
Hotchner. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2005.
Other Recommended Books and Essays
Bartlett, Norman. "Hemingway: The Hero as Self." Quadrant 71 (1971): 13-20.
Beach, Joseph Warren. American Fiction, 1920-1940. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1941.
Benson, Jackson J. "Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life." In Hemingway: Essays of
Reassessment. Ed. Frank Scafella. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. 155-168.
Comley, Nancy R. and Robert Scholes. Hemingway's Genders: Rereading the Hemingway Text. New Haven:
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Yale University Press, 1994.
Donaldson, Scott. By Force of Will: The Life and Art of Ernest Hemingway. New York: The Viking Press, 1977.
Junkins, Donald. "Shadowboxing in the Hemingway Biographies." In Hemingway: Essays of Reassessment. Ed.
Frank Scafella. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. 142-153.
Kaplin, Harold. The Passive Voice: An Approach to Modern Fiction. Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1966.
Kashkeen, Ivan. "Alive in the Midst of Death: Ernest Hemingway." In Hemingway and His Critics. Ed. Carlos
Baker. New York: Hill and Wang, Inc., 1961. 162-179.
Kert, Bernice. The Hemingway Women. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1983.
Latham, Aaron. "A Farewell to Machismo." New York Times Magazine, 16 October 1977, 51-55, 80-82, 94-99.
Lewis, Robert W. Hemingway on Love. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965.
Mizener, Arthur. The Sense of Life in the Modern Novel. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964.
Motola, Gabriel. "Hemingway's Code: Literature and Life." Modern Fiction Studies 10 (Winter 1964-1965): 319-
329.
O'Faolain, Sean. The Vanishing Hero: Studies in Novelists of the Twenties. Boston: Little, Brown and Company,
1956.
Snell, George. The Shapers of American Fiction: 1748-1947. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1947.
Spilka, Mark. Hemingway's Quarrel with Androgyny. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.
Synopses
Lass, Abraham H., Ed. A Student's Guide to 50 American Novels. New York: Washington Square Press, 1966.
Magill, Frank N., Ed. Masterplots II: American Fiction Series. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, 1986.
Magill, Frank N., Ed. Masterplots II: Short Story Series. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, 1986.
Oliver, Charles M. Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York:
Checkmark Books, 1999.
Criticism Checklists
Beebe, Maurice and John Feaster. "Criticism of Ernest Hemingway: A Selected Checklist." Modern Fiction
Studies 14 (1968): 337-369.
Larson, Kelli A. Ernest Hemingway: A Reference Guide, 1974-1989. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1991.
Wagner, Linda W. Ernest Hemingway: A Reference Guide. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1977.
Criticism Collections
Contemporary Literary Criticism. Published by the Gale Research Company.
Meyers, Jeffrey., Ed. Hemingway: The Critical Heritage. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982.
Stephens, Robert O., Ed. Ernest Hemingway: The Critical Reception. New York: Burt Franklin & Co., Inc., 1977.
Bibliographies
Cohn, Louis Henry. A Bibliography of the Works of Ernest Hemingway. New York: Random House, 1931.
Hannerman, Audre. Ernest Hemingway: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 1967.
. Supplement to Ernest Hemingway: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 1975.
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