Domain of Design
Domain of Instructional Design
Instructional Design is defined as “the process of specifying conditions for learning” (Seels & Richey, 1994,
p. 30).
Instructional Design is focused on the systematic process of learning. According to Dick and Carey, a
systems point of view of learning is a process in which every component: teacher, learners, materials and
learning environment work symbiotically toward the goal of successful learning. A system is simply a “set of
interrelated parts, all of which work together toward a defined goal” (Dick & Carey, 2001, p. 2-3). This view
takes into consideration that all parts of any given system work together with equal credence toward a
common goal. Each part of the system has its own role and is equally as vital to the functioning of the
system as whole. There are several models that an Instructional Designer may follow when designing
instruction. The models as well as the processes embodied in all of the models are referred to as
Instructional Systems Development or (ISD). (Dick & Carey, 2001, p. 4)
During the Instructional Design process the designer will ask and answer the following questions:
● What are the important characteristics of the learners, learning environment and learning context?
● What are the goals and objectives that need to be taught?
● What strategies are the most effective for the learners to master the objectives?
● How will the learner be assessed to determine if they mastered the objectives?
● What instructional delivery system will be the most effective for the objectives to be met and are most
appropriate to the design project?
Instructional Design is divided into four sub-domains or components that make up the design processes.
The first sub-domain, Instructional System Design, is defined as “an organized procedure that includes the
systematic process of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing and evaluating instruction” (Seels &
Richey, 1998, p. 31). This step-by-step process of designing instruction can be illustrated in the Analysis,
Design Development, Implementation, and Evaluation model as seen in the visual below. The ADDIE model
provides a general framework, however, for other, more specific, Instructional Design projects instructional
designers can choose from various models. While offering new steps and process, the majority of these
models demonstrate the systematic processes of designing instruction.
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● A-Analysis: the process of defining what is to be learned
● D-Design: the process of specifying how it is to be learned
● D-Development: the process of authoring and producing the materials
● I-Implementation: the process of installing the project in the real world context
● E-Evaluation: the process of determining the impact of instruction
(Seels, B. & Glasgow, Z., 1998, p. 13).
ADDIE Model
Figure 3: ADDIE Model
Image adopted from:
www.up.ac.za/academic/soba/SAAPAM/vol36n3/clapper.htm
The Instructional design process is systematic and is a result of a comprehensive and thorough analysis.
The analysis process will guide every aspect of the design product. Analysis is a crucial phase of the
Instructional Design Processes. This phase may also be referred to as a Needs Assessment. During the
Needs Assessment or analysis information about the learners, learning context and performance problem
will be gathered and analyzed. This analysis information will allow the designer to identify the instructional
goals. (Dick & Carey, 2001) The analysis phase consists of a comprehensive set of process and sub-steps
in and of itself. However, it is a component of the instructional design process, therefore is a phase that is
incorporated in all instructional design models.
There are many models that a designer may utilize to guide his/her analysis. A designer may choose a
model to follow while considering: the specifics of the performance problem, the context of problem, the
learners and any other pertinent information that may impact the development process. There are some
differences evident among various instructional design models. However, in comparing and contrasting
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various phases it is apparent that the primary steps are consistent across all Instructional analysis models.
Figures 4, 5 and 6 are examples of Instructional Design models:
Reiser & Dick ISD Model
Figure 4: Reiser & Dick ISD Model
Image adopted from Reiser and Dick:
http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/edp511/fig1_isd.gif
Smith & Ragan ISD Model
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Figure 6: Seels & Glasgow ISD Model
Image adopted from Seels and Glasgow:
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Seels_and_Glasgow_Model_II
A widely accepted and implemented Instructional Systems Design Models is the Dick and Carey model of
Instructional Design. An important part of this model is analysis phase in which the designer identifies goals,
conducts instructional analysis which consists of learner, environmental and task analysis and generates
learning or performance objectives for the instructional design phase.
Dick & Carey Design Model
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Domain of Design
Figure 7: Dick & Carey ISD Model
Image adopted from:
http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/activities/cape/Instructional_Models/dc_design.html
As seen in Figure 7, the Dick and Carey model demonstrates that Instructional Designers engage in
analysis prior to: designing and developing instruction, evaluating, revising, implementing and evaluating the
instruction again. Similar to other Instructional Design models, the Dick and Carey model follows the general
guidelines of the ADDIE model. This model is comprehensive and specific in that there are sub-steps of
each phase of the ADDIE model that are more detailed.
Another Instructional Systems Design Model is the Kemp, Morrison and Ross Model (see Figure 8) of
Instructional Systems Design. As seen below the Kemp, Morrison and Ross model presents the instructional
design process as a circular process . This implies that the design processes do not function autonomously
of one another. As evidenced by the format and organization of the model, each step is not only dependent
upon the step before it and impacts the step after it , but at the same time they are impacted by the outer-
ring processes. This model contains the steps of the design processes that are generally outlined in the
ADDIE model.
Kemp, Morrison & Ross ISD Model
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Figure 8 : Kemp, Morrison, & Ross ISD Model
Image adopted from:
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~baterden/Model2.htm
Although various Instructional Design Models are available for use, the instructional designer often follows
the model that best suits the project specifications. Some instructional designers may choose to combine
elements from more than one model. The primary concern of the designer is to use the model that will serve
to solve the performance problem and is based on needs of the learners and the conditions.
Message Design:
Message design is the format in which the instructional message is relayed to the learner. It involves
“planning for the manipulation of the physical form of the message” (Seels and Richey, p. 31).
Message design is the impetus for conveying the content of the instructional objectives. In essence, the
message design will include the information that the learner will learn. However, there is much more to
message design than simply writing the content. During every instructional design process some
instructional messages are designed and delivered to the learner. Message design is an extremely
deliberate combination of instructional theory paradigms and graphic design principles. Message design
includes the processes of planning what the instructional message will include as well as what it looks like
and how it is delivered: text, audio, video, and/or multimedia, etc.
In Instructional Design processes, message design is often driven by the results of the learner,
environmental and contextual analyses. Designers try to infuse the multimedia message with the information
derived from the analyses in order to produce and develop the most effective instructional messages to
include in the product. Instructional designers often employ basic principles and theories of designing
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instructional messages. For example, a designer may consider the Three Assumptions of a Cognitive
Theory of Multimedia Learning as described by Richard Mayer (Mayer, 2001) (See Table 1).
Table 1: Mayer’s Three Assumptions of Multimedia Learning
Assumption Description Implication in ISD
Dual Channels
Learners have separate channels
for processing visual and auditory
information
Information input, storage, and
recall is enhanced by presenting
information in both visual and
verbal form.
Limited Capacity
Learners are limited in the
amount of information that they
can process in each channel at
one time
Images and words should be
coupled when deemed to be an
effective. They should serve to
send the same message.
Designers should not present too
much verbal or visual information
to a learner. Also designers
should not present too much
information for the learner to store
in their working memory while
learning; message design can
impact this.
Active Processing
Learners engage in active
learning by attending to relevant
incoming information, organizing
selected information into coherent
representations, and integrating
mental representations with other
knowledge
Designers should design
instructional messages
specifically for the ease of the
learner to: select, organize and
integrate the information by
strategically using:
● Font Type, Bold,
Underlined, Italicized, size
& color variances, etc.
● Graphics
● Formatting-how the
information is laid out,
spaced, organized
● Advanced Organizers
Instructional Strategies:
Instructional Strategies may be considered the “how to” or the guide on the manner in which the content will
be developed, written and delivered. The strategies will be considered and planned according to: learner
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characteristics, learning outcomes and instructional goals. Therefore, the instructional strategies will vary
according to each instructional design project. Information from instructional analysis will guide decision
making in choosing instructional strategies for every instructional design project. Additionally, a designer will
use this information to choose an instructional model that will meet the needs of the learners as well as the
instructional goals.
In 1965, Robert Gagne published The Conditions of Learning which outlined the relationship between
learning objectives and appropriate instructional design strategies . As an instructional theory, Gagne’s
Conditions of Learning theory is based on cognitive information processing theories of learning. The model
assists designers in designing instructional events particularly selection of instructional strategies. The basic
principles of Gagne’s work should be considered and utilized during the design and development phase of
Instructional Design. The general principles that are useful for instructional designers are:
● A different type of instruction is necessary for different learning outcomes.
● The particular procedures that make up instructional events vary according to each type of learning
outcome.
Gagne identifies five categories of learning: Illustrates learning outcomes as well as the instructional
strategy that can be implemented to meet the outcome.
Table 2: Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes & Conditions of Learning
Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes & Conditions of
Learning
Taxonomy of
Learning
Outcomes
Example Critical Learning Conditions
Verbal
Information
Stating previously
learned materials
such as facts,
concepts,
principles, and
procedures, e.g.,
listing the seven
major symptoms of
cancer
1. Draw attention to
distinctive features by
variations in print or
speech.
2. Present information so
that it can be made into
chunks.
3. Provide a meaningful
context for effective
encoding of information.
4. Provide cues for effective
recall and generalization
of information.
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Intellectual
Skills :
Discriminations,
Concrete
Concepts,
Defined
Concepts,
Rules, Higher
Order Rules
Discriminations:
Distinguishing
objects, features, or
symbols, e.g.,
hearing different
pitches played on a
musical instrument
Concrete Concepts:
Identifying classes
of concrete objects,
features, or events,
e.g., picking out all
the green M&Ms
from the candy jar
Defined Concepts:
classifying new
examples of events
or ideas by their
definition, e.g.,
noting "she sells
sea shells" as
alliteration
Rules: Applying a
single relationship
to solve a class of
problems, e.g.,
calculating the
earned run
averages (ERA) of
the Atlanta Braves
Higher Order Rules:
Applying a new
combination of
rules to solve a
complex problem, e.
g., generating a
balanced budget for
a state organization
1. Call attention to
distinctive features.
2. Stay within the limits of
working memory.
3. Stimulate the recall of
previously learned
component skills.
4. Present verbal cues to
the ordering or
combination of
component skills.
5. Schedule occasions for
practice and spaced
review.
6. Use a variety of contexts
to promote transfer.
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Cognitive
Strategies
Employing personal
ways to guide
learning, thinking,
acting, and feeling,
e.g., devising a
corporate plan to
improve customer
relations
1. Describe or demonstrate
the strategy.
2. Provide a variety of
occasions for practice
using the strategy.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or originality of
the strategy or outcome.
Attitudes
Choosing personal
actions based on
internal states of
understanding and
feeling, e.g.,
deciding to exercise
daily as a part of
preventive health
care
1. Establish an expectancy
of success associated
with the desired attitude.
2. Assure student
identification with an
admired human model.
3. Arrange for
communication or
demonstration of choice
of personal action.
4. Give feedback for
successful performance;
or allow observation of
feedback in the human
model.
Motor Skills
Executing
performances
involving the use
muscles, e.g., doing
a triple somersault
dive off the high
board
1. Present verbal or other
guidance to cue the
executive subroutine.
2. Arrange repeated
practice.
3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the
accuracy of performance.
4. Encourage the use of
mental practice.
http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/theory/gagne.html
Information from: Driscoll, M. (1991) Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Allyn and Bacon.
There are various Instructional Design models that can be utilized in planning and applying instructional
strategies . One of the most simplistic but valuable instructional strategies is the Select Organize Integrate
(SOI) model proposed by Richard Mayer (Mayer, 2001). Mayer’s SOI model can be implemented for any
type of learning outcome. This model includes:
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● S-Selecting Relevant Information
● O-Organizing Incoming Information
● I-Integrating Incoming Information
In pragmatic terms and from the learner’s perspective, selecting relevant information will include-choosing to
attend to clearly important information to learn. This may be indicated by bold-faced, underlined, highlighted
information or any other “indicator” that will say to the learner-“this is important”. Organizing information will
include how the learner perceives the information that they are learning. In what fashion is the information
presented to the learner? How is the information structured? This strategy may include an outline format or if
the message is auditory, it may include a deliberate pause. The integration of information is essentially, how
the learner “puts it all together”. This should include intentional and planned connections established by the
designer. In other words, the designer should ensure, based on analysis data, that the content not only
connects in and of itself but also that the learner connects the newly learned information with prior
knowledge. Connections may be established in a number of ways, according to the specific design product.
One example is using analogies. These connections or integration of information will ensure learning takes
place as instructional messages with no connections are just words.
In Instructional Design processes the ARCS Model (Keller, 1987) may also be used to apply the basic
principles and steps of making connections with the learners. The model is designed to increase learner
motivation as without learner motivation the presentation of information is likely to be irrelevant. The ARCS
Model of Learner Motivation (see Figure 9) demonstrates the general steps or guidelines that could be
followed in considering the instructional strategies. The instructional strategies should be chosen for an
instructional design product to improve learner motivation.
● A-Attention-How are you going to gain and keep the attention of the learner?
● R-Relevance-How are you going to make the content relevant to the learner?
● C-Confidence-How are you going to make the learner feel as if they can and will learn the material
and master the learning objective?
● S-Satisfaction-How are you going to cause the learner to feel as if they have gained something from
the material and their learning? Is this material and learning personally meaningful and/or purposeful
to the learner is some way?
ARCS Model of Motivation
Figure 9: ARCS Model of Motivation
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Image adopted from:
http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw04/papers/refereed/lund/paper.htm
Learner Characteristics:
The learner characteristics are the driving force behind all instruction. If the learner characteristics are not
accurately, thoroughly and effectively analyzed the instruction may be irrelevant and ineffective. Learner
characteristics should include any and all information that is relevant to the instructional design project.
Typically, the following information will be utilized as a starting point for the learner analysis: age,
socioeconomic background, entry behaviors, prior knowledge, attitude toward content, attitude toward
delivery system, academic motivation for instruction, education and ability levels, learning preference/style,
and attitude toward organization. This information may be adequate to begin an instructional design project.
However, during the instructional analysis, the designer should determine if any other learner information
would be pertinent and use that information as well. An instructional design project and product should
always include some degree of learner analysis as effective instruction is learner centered.
Historically, Pedagogy or teaching has been content and teacher centered. However, the paradigm shift in
education has resulted in moving from a more teacher centered approach of instruction to a more learner
centered approach. Today, pedagogy is the art, science, or profession of teaching (Merriam Webster
Dictionary, 2006).
In 1973, Malcolm Knowles published the book, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species in which Andragogy
was originally defined as "the art and science of helping adults learn". It has since shifted to a more
expansive meaning. The term now refers to learner-focused education for people of all ages. A
straightforward depiction of Andragogy is to consider the learner at the center and the learning content
surrounding them (see Figure 10).
Visual Comparison: Andragogy & Pedagogy
Figure 10: Visual Comparison: Andragogy & Pedagogy
Image adopted from:
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http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw04/papers/refereed/lund/paper.htm
An instructional designer that approaches instructional design from a learner centered point of view will
consider the following general principles of Andragogy that are related to learners and their characteristics:
Learners Need:
● To know why they are learning something
● To learn through experience and problem solving
● To explore topics of immediate value to them-useful, pragmatic
● Choices
● To focus on process, including social process
● Self-directedness, motivated by where the learning will get them (Knowles, 1973).
Introduction About Me History & Definition Domains Competencies Artifacts Resume References Works
Cited Glossary
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