Cyberpornography: Time Use, Perceived Addiction, Sexual Functioning, and Sexual Satisfaction

ORIGINAL ARTICLES

Cyberpornography:

Time Use, Perceived Addiction, Sexual Functioning,

and Sexual Satisfaction

Sarah Blais-Lecours, BA,

Marie-Pier Vaillancourt-Morel, PhD,

Ste´ phane Sabourin, PhD,

and Natacha Godbout, PhD

Abstract

Using pornography through the Internet is now a common activity even if associated sexual outcomes, including

sexual satisfaction, are highly variable. The present study tested a two-step sequential mediation model whereby

cyberpornography time use is related to sexual satisfaction through the association with, in a ﬁrst step, perceived

addiction to cyberpornography (i.e., perceived compulsivity, effort to access, and distress toward pornography) and

with, in a second step, sexual functioning problems (i.e., sexual dysfunction, compulsion, and avoidance). These

differential associations were also examined across gender using model invariance across men and women. A sample

of 832 adults from the community completed self-report online questionnaires. Results indicated that 51 percent of

women and 90 percent of men reported viewing pornography through the Internet. Path analyses showed indirect

complex associations in which cyberpornography time use is associated with sexual dissatisfaction through per-

ceived addiction and sexual functioning problems. These patterns of associations held for both men and women.

Keywords: cyberpornography, sexual functioning, addiction, sexual satisfaction, gender

Introduction

ver the past 10 years, with sexual content easily ac-

cessible through Internet, pornography viewing has be-

come a typical pattern of behaviors, self-reportedly performed

to increase sexual well-being and satisfaction.

Despite a lack

of consensus about the deﬁnition of ‘‘cyberpornography use,’’

one common denominator seems to be the consumption of

sexually explicit Internet material. Following a recent re-

analysis of four large representative samples of American

adults, Regnerus, Gordon, and Price

concluded that, over a

given year, 69 percent of men and 40 percent of women in-

tentionally viewed pornography. Whereas prevalence estima-

tes are robust, it is less clear whether and under what

conditions these behaviors become problematic or, on the

contrary, increase sexual well-being and satisfaction. The

available research evidence on this topic is not only recent and

limited but also the examination of empirical data is inevitably

shaped by complex moral, political, and social issues.

Un-

surprisingly, recent scientiﬁc discussions are frequently po-

larized along a permissive–restrictive continuum.

Past results on pornography use outcomes are highly vari-

able, especially with regard to sexual outcomes. Indeed, many

individuals report that pornography consumption is associated

with improvements in sexual life, increased sexual knowl-

edge, and a more positive and permissive attitude about sex-

uality.

5–9

Likewise, Landripet and S

tulhofer

concluded that,

in heterosexual young men, pornography consumption does

not seem to be related to desire, erectile, or orgasmic difﬁ-

culties. These results stand in stark contrast with those of

recent studies reporting that pornography use is associated

with adverse sexual effects such as sexually compulsive be-

haviors, dependence to pornography, and risky sexual be-

haviors.

1,11–15

Sexual satisfaction is also either negatively

16,17

or positively

5,6,18,19

associated with viewing pornography.

Whereas these contradictory ﬁndings are partly associated

with between-study methodological discrepancies, the body of

evidence remains small and it is important to identify factors

that may explain the association between cyberpornography

use and sexual well-being.

Because sexual dissatisfaction is common

and predicted

by a wide array of psychosocial factors,

time spent con-

suming cyberpornography could most probably be associ-

ated with sexual dissatisfaction through multiple pathways,

including sexual functioning problems. Because cyber-

pornogr aphy use may encourage some consumers to develop

cole de Psychologie, Universite

Laval, Que

bec, Canada.

partement de Sexologie, Universite

du Que

bec a

Montre

al, Montre

al, Canada.

CYBERPSYCHOLOGY,BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING

Volume 19, Number 11, 2016

ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2016.0364

649

unrealistic expectations, performance anxiety, less control

over sexuality, and more concerns about their sexuality,

22,23

the development of sexual functioning problems examined

through sexual dysfunction, compulsion, and avoidance

could explain sexual dissatisfactions.

Past research endeavors on cyberpornography use have

been mainly informed by a descriptive view of the phe-

nomenon (i.e., the number of hours consuming cyberporno-

graphy).

Because social attitudes and personal meanings

attached to cyberpornography viewing are rapidly evolv-

ing,

measures of cyberpornography use should also assess

perceived addiction to cyberpornography. Time spent con-

suming cyberpornography may be associated with sexual

functioning and satisfaction through users’ subjective self-

perception of internal pressures, interferences with daily life,

and affects activated by these behaviors. In a recent 1-year

longitudinal study, perceived addiction to cyberpornography

was associated with psychological distress, even when con-

trolling for time spent viewing cyberpornography.

There is

thus a pressing need to integrate descriptive and subjective

measures to better understand cyberpornography-related

sexual functioning and satisfaction.

Pornography user’s gender may also explain the contra-

dictory outcomes of cyberpornography consumption. The

differential association between pornography use and sexual

functioning and satisfaction in women and men is under-

studied. Some differences are reported in the way men and

women consume pornography, where men prefer to use

pornography alone for arousal and masturbation, women

tend to use it with their partner as part of their sexual ac-

tivities.

8,26

These gender differences may have speciﬁc ef-

fects on the association between cyberpornography use and

sexual functioning and satisfaction.

Current study

The current study aimed to examine the factors that may

explain the diversity of sexual outcomes associated with cyber-

pornography viewing. More speciﬁcally, the role of three

variables was examined; perceived addiction to cyberporno-

graphy, sexual functioning problems, and gender. We tested a

two-step sequential mediation model whereby cyberporno-

graphy time use is related to sexual satisfaction through the

association with perceived addiction to cyberpornography

(i.e., perceived compulsivity, effort to access, and distress

toward cyberpornography) and where perceived addiction is

associated with sexual satisfaction through sexual function-

ing problems (i.e., sexual dysfunction, compulsion, and

avoidance). We also examined whether this sequential me-

diational model was invariant across gender. It was hypo-

thesized that perceived addiction to cyberpornography and

sexual functioning would play a mediational role between

cyberpornography time use and sexual satisfaction and that

the mediational model would vary across men and women.

Methods

Participants and procedure

A convenience sample of French-speaking men and wo-

men aged 18 or older was recruited in a Canadian province

through university electronic lists, online classiﬁed adver-

tisements, and social networks. Advertisements informed

participants that the study was an online survey assessing the

determinants of sexuality in adulthood. The study protocol

and consent procedures were approved by an institutional

review board. Of the 1,329 voluntary participants who star-

ted the survey, 832 (62.6 percent) completed the questions on

cyberpornography use. Of these, 71.8 percent were women

(n = 597) and 28.2 percent were men (n = 235) aged between

18 and 78 years (M = 25.20, SD = 7.99). A total of 35.3 per-

cent were either married or cohabiting individuals (n = 294),

29.6 percent were dating (n = 246), and 33.3 percent were

single (n = 277).

Measures

Cyberpornography time use.

Based on Grubbs et al.

and Wetterneck et al.

measures of pornography time use,

using a single question, participants were asked to indicate

their average amount (in minutes) of weekly use of cyber-

pornography over the last 6 months. Studies in sex research

report high levels of test–retest reliability for self-reported

sexual behaviors (q = 0.84–0.96)

and strong correlations

between self-reported retrospective measures of sexual be-

haviors and daily diary estimates (r = 0.87).

Perceived cyberpornography addiction. The Cyber Por-

nography Use Inventory

was used to assess three key di-

mensions of perceived addiction to cyberpornography:

perceived compulsivity to cyberpornography (three items,

e.g., I believe I am addicted to Internet pornography), inten-

sity of efforts to access cyberpornography (three items, e.g.,

At times, I rearrange my schedule to be alone to view por-

nography), and emotional distress associated with cyberpor-

nography use (three i tems, e.g. , I f eel ashamed after viewing

pornography). Conﬁrmatory factor analyses showed that each

item of the three dimensions was signiﬁcantly correlated with

its respective factor, ranging from 0.52 to 0.92.

The alpha

coefﬁcients ranged from 0.68 to 0.91.

Sexual functioning. In the present study, sexual function-

ing was examined through sexual dysfunction, sexual com-

pulsion, and sexual avoidance. For sexual dysfunction, the

Arizona Sexual Experiences Scale (Brassard A, Bourassa M.

2012. Taduction franc¸aise du Arizona Sexual Experiences

Scale (ASEX) [French translation of the Arizona Sexual Ex-

periences Scale (ASEX)]. Unpublished manuscript.)

was

used to quantify sex drive, arousal, vaginal lubrication/penile

erection, ability to reach orgasm, satisfaction from orgasm, and

pain during sex. This questionnaire includes six Likert-type

items, with a higher score indicating more sexual dysfunction.

This scale demonstrated good psychometric properties: ex-

cellent internal consistency, strong test–retest reliability, and

good construct validity.

The alpha coefﬁcient was 0.73.

For sexual compulsion and avoidance, the Sexual Com-

pulsivity Scale

and the Sexual Avoidance Subscale of the

Sexual Aversion Scale

were used to respectively assess

difﬁculties to manage sexual thoughts, concerns, and behav-

iors, as well as avoidant behaviors relating to sexual contact.

These questionnaires include 10 Likert-type items. These

scales were selected because of their psychometric qualities,

good internal consistency,

33,34

and good temporal stability.

32,33

The alpha coefﬁcient was 0.83 for sexual compulsivity and

0.86 for sexual avoidance.

650 BLAIS-LECOURS ET AL.

Sexual satisfaction. The Global Measure of Sexual Sa-

tisfaction

was used to assess global satisfaction with vari-

ous aspects of the sexual relationship. This questionnaire

includes ﬁve items rated on 7-point bipolar scales: good-bad,

pleasant-unpleasant, positive-negative, satisfying-unsatisfying,

and valuable-worthless. A higher score reﬂects a higher

level of sexual satisfaction. This measure was chose n be-

cause of its psychometric qual ities in differ ent sampl es;

good internal consi stency, strong temporal stability , and

good construct validity.

35,36

The alpha coefﬁcient for this

measure was 0.91.

Statistical analyses

Descriptive statistics was computed using SPSS 20 and path

analyses, using Mplus,version7.

Bivariate analyses, a mul-

tivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and Pearson’s cor-

relations were used to examine sample characteristics, mean

differences between men and women, and the relationships

between study variables. Effect size magnitude was estimated

based on Cohen’s

guidelines, where g

> 0.01 was considered

small, g

> 0.09 was medium, and g

> 0.25 was large.

Path analyses. A saturated path analysis model was ﬁrst

assessed in the full sample allowing residual terms of me-

diational variables to covary. Then, nonsigniﬁcant direct

paths were removed to obtain a more parsimonious media-

tional model. The robust maximum likelihood estimator was

used in all analyses. Based on most recommended guide-

lines,

39–41

overall model ﬁt was tested by considering to-

gether the comparative ﬁt index (CFI), the root mean square

error of approximation (RMSEA), the standardized root

mean square residual (SRMR), and the ratio of chi-square to

degrees of freedom (v

/df). A CFI value of 0.90 or higher, a

RMSEA and a SRMR value below 0.05, and a v

/df less than

three are indicators of good ﬁt.

39,40

Multiple group path analysis was used to determine if the

model differed between men and women.

42,43

A saturated

model, allowing all paths of the ﬁnal model to be estimated

freely between men and women, was compared to a model in

which structural paths were constrained to be equal across

gender using a corrected chi-square difference test (Satorra–

Bentler scaled chi-square).

A signiﬁcant chi-square dif-

ference test indicates that the mediational model varies

between men and women.

Results

Descriptive statistics

Psychosexual variables across gender.

In the present

sample, 51.0 percent (n = 304) of women and 90.2 percent

(n = 211) of men reported cyberpornography use; this gender

difference was signiﬁcant; v

(1) = 109.45, p < 0.001, and Cra-

mer’s V = 0.36. Means and standard deviations for all psycho-

sexual variables in the model according to gender are

reported in Table 1. The MANOVA examining gender dif-

ferences on psychosexual variables yielded a signiﬁcant mul-

tivariate large effect, F(8, 810) = 61.60, p < 0.001, g

= 0.378,

Wilks’s L = 0.622. Therefore, univariate between-gender main

effects were examined for individual dependent variables. To

account for multiple tests being run, results were interpreted

using a Bonferroni-corrected p value of 0.006 (0.05/8 tests =

0.006). Using this signiﬁcance level, univariate analyses in-

dicated signiﬁcant differences between men and women on all

variables except for distress caused by cyberpornography

use, sexual avoidance, and sexual satisfaction (Table 1). As

compared with women, men reported signiﬁcantly more

cyberpornography time use, perceived compulsivity to cyber-

pornography, efforts to access cyberpornography, and sexual

compulsivity.

Correlations among psychosexual variables. Correlations

between psychosexual variables are reported in Table 2. All

variables were signiﬁcantly related with the exception of

cyberpornography time use with distress caused by cyber-

pornography and with sexual avoidance. All psychosexual

variables were negatively associated with sexual satisfaction

with effect sizes ranging from small to large.

The mediational role of perceived addiction and sexual

functioning in the association between time

use and sexual satisfaction

The main hypothesis of the present study was that per-

ceived addiction to cyberpornography and sexual functioning

would play a mediational role between cyberpornography

time use and sexual satisfaction. The saturated model showed

that, when indirect paths were estimated, ﬁve direct paths

were nonsigniﬁcant: the paths from perceived addiction to

sexual satisfaction and the paths from cyberpornography time

use to sexual compulsivity and sexual avoidance. These paths

Table 1. Mean Differences for Psychosexual Variables Across Gender

Variables

Gender

Fpg

Women Men

n = 587 n = 232

Internet pornography time use in minutes 17.03 (40.91) 75.32 (88.09) 166.45 <0.001* 0.17

Compulsive Internet pornography 1.35 (0.88) 2.90 (1.61) 307.52 <0.001* 0.27

Effort to access Internet pornography 1.12 (0.44) 1.66 (1.00) 118.48 <0.001* 0.13

Distress caused by Internet pornography 1.99 (1.40) 2.23 (1.55) 4.61 0.032 0.01

Sexual dysfunction 16.91 (4.15) 13.72 (3.92) 101.46 <0.001* 0.11

Sexual compulsivity 14.27 (4.36) 16.56 (5.18) 41.42 <0.001* 0.05

Sexual avoidance 12.63 (4.08) 13.29 (4.75) 3.95 0.047 0.01

Sexual satisfaction 26.94 (6.26) 25.76 (6.73) 5.67 0.018 0.01

*signiﬁcant at the Bonferroni corrected p value = 0.006.

CYBERPORNOGRAPHY AND SEXUAL SATISFACTION 651

were removed from the mediational model (Fig. 1). Results

indicated good ﬁt for this model: v

(5) = 4.16, p = 0.526;

RMSEA = 0.00, 90% CI: 0.00 to 0.04; CFI = 1.00; SRMR =

0.01; and v

/df = 0.83.

The model indicates that cyberpornography time use is

positively associated with perceived compulsivity to cyber-

pornography, which in return has two signiﬁcant indirect ef-

fects on sexual satisfaction through a negative association

with sexual dysfunction and a positive association with sexual

compulsivity. The indirect effect through sexual dysfunction

(b = 0.34, 95% CI: 0.19 to 0.52) predicted higher sexual sat-

isfaction, while the one through sexual compulsivity is asso-

ciated with lower sexual satisfaction (b =-0.17, 95% CI: -

0.29 to -0.09). The indirect effect of perceived compulsivity

on sexual satisfaction through sexual avoidance did not reach

signiﬁcance (b = 0.04, 95% CI: -0.13 to 0.20).

Pornography time use is positively associated with efforts

to access cyberpornography, which have an indirect effect on

sexual satisfaction through a positive association with sexual

compulsivity, which in turn predicted lower sexual satis-

faction. This negative indirect effect through sexual com-

pulsivity was signiﬁcant (b =-0.32, 95% CI: -0.55 to -0.16),

while those involving sexual dysfunction (b =-0.03, 95% CI:

-0.36 to 0.26) and sexual avoidance (b =-0.32, 95% CI: -

0.70 to 0.02) were not.

Cyberpornography time use is not associated with distress

arising from cyberpornography use. However, distress aris-

ing from cyberpornography use has a signiﬁcant negative

indirect effect on sexual satisfaction through increased sex-

ual dysfunction (b =-0.38, 95% CI: -0.54 to -0.24) and

sexual avoidance (b =-0.50, 95% CI: -0.67 to -0.35),

whereas the indirect effect through sexual compulsivity

(b =-0.03, 95% CI: -0.08 to 0.003) was nonsigniﬁcant.

Gender invariance of the mediational model

The comparison of the mediational model, in which all

paths were freely estimated between men and women, to the

model in which structural paths were constrained to be equal

across men and women produced a nonsigniﬁcant chi-square

difference, v

difference

(17) = 15.44, p = 0.564. Thus, the me-

diational model presented in Figure 1 held for men and

women. This invariant mediational model between men and

women proved satisfactory; v

(27) = 23.64, p = 0.650;

RMSEA = 0.00, 90% CI: 0.00 to 0.03; CFI = 1.00; SRMR =

0.03; and v

/df = 0.88.

Discussion

Viewing pornography through the Internet is increasingly

becoming a socially normative activity. In the present sam-

ple, cyberpornography was widely used, with almost all men

and 50 percent of women having viewed sexually explicit

Internet material over the last 6 months. This gender dif-

ference is substantial and conﬁrm the gender prevalence

difference observed in past studies.

3,17,45,46

This result

should be tempered by the general social context, where

Table 2. Correlations Among Cyberpornography Time Use and Psychosexual Study Variables

Variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

1. Cyberpornography time use

in minutes

—

2. Compulsive cyberpornography 0.50*** —

3. Effort to access cyberpornography 0.50*** 0.62*** —

4. Distress caused by

cyberpornography

0.03 0.19*** 0.11** —

5. Sexual dysfunction -0.19*** -0.19*** -0.14*** 0.20*** —

6. Sexual compulsivity 0.30*** 0.44*** 0.43*** 0.13*** -0.16*** —

7. Sexual avoidance 0.04 0.09** 0.11** 0.31*** 0.31*** 0.13*** —

8. Sexual satisfaction -0.09** -0.11** -0.10** -0.20*** -0.44*** -0.15*** -0.51*** —

Note: n ranged between 826 and 832.

**p < 0.01;***p < 0.001.

FIG. 1. Path analysis

model of perceived addiction

to cyberpornography and

sexual functioning as media-

tors of the association be-

tween cyberpornography

time use and sexual satisfac-

tion. *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.

***p < 0.001. Covariances

between mediators are esti-

mated in the model, but not

reported to avoid confusion.

652 BLAIS-LECOURS ET AL.

attitudes toward women’s pornography use are generally

more ambiguous or negative.

This may have led women, as

compared to men, to underreport pornography consumption

because of shame associated with this sexual behavior or

because of a social desirability bias. Indeed, ﬁndings from

Shaughnessy et al.

showed that women report more negative

attitudes toward cyberpornography (e.g., online sex is morally

wrong or dirty), which was related to their tendency to con-

sume less pornography than men. Despite this possibility,

these gender differences may also reﬂect the fact that, because

men traditionally were and still are the main consumers of

cyberpornography, most sexual scenarios depicted in videos

are generally oriented toward men’s needs, fantasies, and

preferences and may be less attractive to some women.

Apart from this gender prevalence difference, a complex

pattern of ﬁndings emerges from the present study. First,

even when controlling for perceived addiction to cyberpor-

nography and overall sexual functioning, cyberpornography

use remained directly associated with sexual dissatisfaction.

Even though this negative direct association was of small

magnitude, time spent viewing cyberpornography seems to

be a robust predictor of lower sexual satisfaction. However,

because of the cross-sectional nature of our design, it is

difﬁcult to determine whether viewing cyberpornography

causally increases sexual dissatisfaction or if women and

men who are less satisﬁed sexually tend to increase their use

of cyberpornography. Another interesting possibility would

be that these two variables are causally related through a

reciprocal nonrecursive model. Future longitudinal studies

will shed light on these causal hypotheses.

In addition to this direct effect, cyberpornography use was

also associated with sexual satisfaction through different in-

direct pathways. First, cyberpornography viewing was related

to perceived compulsivity to cyberpornography, which, in

turn, was associated with overall sexual compulsion and, ul-

timately, with sexual dissatisfaction. This ﬁnding is consistent

with recent past studies.

Another pathway linked cyber-

pornography use to perceived compulsivity to cyberporno-

graphy, which was related to higher sexual satisfaction

through lower sexual dysfunction. In our results, this is the

only positive effect cyberpornography use has on sexual sat-

isfaction. This positive association may be explained by the

protective effect of regular sexual behaviors on sexual dys-

function and, therefore, on sexual satisfaction or it could be

that individuals with sexual dysfunctions are not compulsively

attracted to cyberpornography use given their sexual prob-

lems. Finally, another pathway showed that distress caused by

cyberpornography, which was not explained by time spent

viewing cyberpornography, predicted higher sexual dysfunc-

tion and sexual avoidance, both of which were associated with

lower sexual satisfaction. In this pathway, the negative affects

experienced when viewing cyberpornography might probably

be exacerbated by the confrontation with these self-reported

sexual dysfunctions.

These complex mediation results sup-

port Hald’s

proposal; studies need to address possible

moderators or mediators of the relationship between cyber-

pornography use and sexual difﬁculties.

These direct and mediational pathways proved to be in-

variant for women and men. Even if past investigations re-

ported that men use cyberpornography more often than

women, as in the present study, and that the type of sexual

fantasies searched online and the reasons for using online

pornography differ,

8,51

our results highlight that psychosexual

outcomes are similar for men and women. Thus, we observed

negative psychosexual functioning in both women and men.

Even if the negative association between cyberporno-

graphy use and sexual satisfaction for men and women

clearly stem from our results, it is important to interpret the

present ﬁndings in the light of potential limitations. The

correlational and cross-sectional nature of this study pre-

cludes deﬁnitive conclusions about the causal sequence

proposed in our study. In addition, the generalizability of our

results may be limited by the use of a convenience sample

and a sampling strategy that excluded individuals without

Internet access. In addition, there is a potential self-selection

bias when recruiting individuals who volunteer to participate

in an online sexuality research. Finally, the current studies

relied exclusively on online questionnaires, which may lead

to report bias.

Particularly, asking participants to retro-

spectively report their cyberpornography time use in the last

6 months is subject to recall biases. Future studies should

replicate our ﬁndings with a multiple-item prospective

measure of cyberpornography use and examine the temporal

stability of cyberpornography behaviors.

Clinical implications

Standard routine assessment should provide health pro-

fessionals with detailed information on frequency, type of

content viewed, and intensity of cyberpornography behav-

iors, as well as users’ subjective self-perception of internal

pressures, interferences with daily life, and affects activated

by the consumption. The current results suggest that

evidence-based practice should rely on the assessment of the

correlates of any level of cyberpornography use and thera-

pists may respond with informed concern because of its

possible association with negative sexual outcomes.

Our ﬁndings suggest the value of a better understanding of

the personal and relational motivations and affects underly-

ing cyberpornography use to help underline the speciﬁc

mechanisms involved for each user, hereby facilitating the

development of effective interventions within a biopsycho-

social framework.

For example, users for whom cyber-

pornography is a maladaptive coping strategy may beneﬁt

from affect regulation training or mentalization-based in-

terventions,

while social situations’ exposure or social

skills’ training may help consumers using cyberpornography

to reduce loneliness or boredom.

When cyberpornography

is used to avoid couple difﬁculties, individuals and their

partner may beneﬁt from couple therapy and psychoeduca-

tional interventions, where both partners are helped to under-

stand personal and relational triggers of pornography use.

However, more studies are needed to document the efﬁcacy of

these interventions and develop empirically-driven therapeutic

guidelines to improve sexual well-being.

Acknowledgments

Sarah Blais-Lecours was supported by a doctoral fellow-

ship from the Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Intimate

Relationship Problems an d S exual Abuse (CRIPCAS ).

Marie-Pier Vaillanc ourt-Morel was suppor ted by doctoral

fellowships f rom the Social Sci ences an d Humanit ies

Research Co uncil (SSHRC), the Fonds de rec herche du

Que

bec–Socie

et Culture (FRQ-SC), and the CRIPCAS.

CYBERPORNOGRAPHY AND SEXUAL SATISFACTION 653

Natacha Godbout wa s supported by a research scholar

grant from the Fonds de reche rche du Q ue

bec–Sante

.The

authors thank He

ne Paradis and B ei Feng for their as-

sistance with the statistical analyses.

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing ﬁnancial interests exist.

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Address correspondence to:

Dr. Marie-Pier Vaillancourt-Morel

cole de Psychologie

Universite

Laval

Pavillon Fe

lix-Antoine-Savard

2325 rue des Bibliothe

ques, bureau 1234

Que

bec G1V 0A6

Canada

E-mail: [email protected]

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