Preamble

CREATED BY THE

AZA Ape Taxon Advisory Group

& Orangutan Species Survival Plan® Program

IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE

AZA Animal Welfare Committee

ORANGUTAN

(Pongo)

CARE MANUAL

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Orangutan (Pongo) Care Manual

Published by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in association with the AZA Animal Welfare

Committee

Formal Citation:

AZA Ape Taxon Advisory Group. (2017). Orangutan (Pongo) Care Manual. Silver Spring, MD: Association

of Zoos and Aquariums.

Original Completion Date:

February 2015

Authors and Significant Contributors:

Anne Nacey Maggioncalda, Duke University, (former) Primate researcher

Barb Weber, Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Zoological Manager

Barbara Lester, Houston Zoo, Primate Curator (retired)

Beth Schaefer, Los Angeles Zoo, General Curator

Carol Sodaro, Brookfield Zoo, Associate Curator of Carnivores, Chicago Zoological Society, Orangutan

SSP Husbandry Advisor

Christine M. Cassella, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, (former) Graduate Research Associate

Christine Mallar, Zoo Atlanta (former) Primate Keeper

Cindy Cossaboon, Denver Zoo, Primate Keeper

Craig Demitros, Brookfield Zoo, Associate Curator of Primates

Danielle Fogarty, Brookfield Zoo, Primate Keeper

Deb Schmidt, Ph.D., Saint Louis Zoo, Animal Nutritionist

Dina Bredahl, Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, Animal Care Manager

Elizabeth Frank, Milwaukee County Zoo, Primate Curator (retired)

Eve Lyon, Audubon Zoo, Primate Curator (retired)

Eve Watts, Audubon Zoo, Primate researcher (retired)

Ian Singleton, Ph.D., Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme, Director

Ingrid Porton, Saint Louis Zoo, Primate Curator (retired)

Jan W. Rafert, Milwaukee County Zoo, Primate Curator (retired)

Jane Anne Franklin, Louisville Zoo, Curator of Mammals and Animal Training Supervisor

Jill Mellen, Ph.D., Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Education & Science Director (retired)

Joe Smith, DVM, Fort Wayne Children’s Zoo, Director of Animal Programs

Karen S. Killmar, San Diego Zoo, Primate Curator (retired)

Laura K. Mayo, Zoo Atlanta, (former) Assistant Curator of Primates

Leif Cocks, The Orangutan Project, Founder and President

Lori Perkins, Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Education & Science Director, Orangutan SSP Chair

Marty MacPhee, Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Guest Animal Experience Program Manager

Marsha Fernandez, Audubon Zoo, (former) Primate Curator

Megan Elder, Como Park Zoo and Conservatory, Zoo Keeper, Orangutan SSP Vice Chair

Melanie Bond, Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Primate keeper (retired)

Meredith Bastian, Ph.D., Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park, Curator of Primates

Michelle Shaw, Taronga Conservation Society, Nutritionist

Nancy Czekala, Papoose Conservation Wildlife Foundation, Founder and Director

Nancy Lung, VMD, Forth Worth Zoo, Director of Veterinary Services (retired)

Nava Greenblatt, Brookfield Zoo, Lead Primate Keeper

Sally Boutelle, IT/Data Specialist Enrollment Management Southern Illinois University Edwardsville

Sandy Walker, Rolling Hills Zoo, Board of Directors President

Suzanne Husband, Toledo Zoo & Aquarium, Primate Keeper

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Reviewers:

Meredith Bastian, Ph.D., Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Curator of Primates

Cindy Cossaboon, Denver Zoo, Primate Keeper

Megan Elder, Como Park Zoo and Conservatory, Zoo Keeper, Orangutan SSP Vice Chair

Austin Leeds, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Graduate Research Associate

Nancy Lung, VMD, Forth Worth Zoo, Director of Veterinary Services (retired)

Lori Perkins, Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Education & Science Director, Orangutan SSP Chair

Joe Smith, DVM, Fort Wayne Children’s Zoo, Director of Animal Programs

Deb Schmidt, Ph.D., Saint Louis Zoo, Animal Nutritionist

Carol Sodaro, Brookfield Zoo, Associate Curator of Carnivores, Orangutan SSP Husbandry Advisor

AZA Staff Editors:

Felicia Spector, Animal Care Manual Editor Consultant

Candice Dorsey, PhD, Director, Animal Programs

Debborah Luke, PhD, Senior Vice President, Conservation & Science

Rebecca Greenberg, Animal Programs Coordinator

Haley Gordon, AZA Conservation & Science Intern

Cover Photo Credits:

SSP logo designed by Erin Jones, Utah’s Hogle Zoo

Disclaimer:

This manual presents a compilation of knowledge provided by recognized animal experts

based on the current science, practice, and technology of animal management. The manual assembles

basic requirements, best practices, and animal care recommendations to maximize capacity for

excellence in animal care and welfare. The manual should be considered a work in progress, since

practices continue to evolve through advances in scientific knowledge. The use of information within this

manual should be in accordance with all local, state, and federal laws and regulations concerning the

care of animals. While some government laws and regulations may be referenced in this manual, these

are not all-inclusive nor is this manual intended to serve as an evaluation tool for those agencies. The

recommendations included are not meant to be exclusive management approaches, diets, medical

treatments, or procedures, and may require adaptation to meet the specific needs of individual animals

and particular circumstances in each institution. Commercial entities and media identified are not

necessarily endorsed by AZA. The statements presented throughout the body of the manual do not

represent AZA standards of care unless specifically identified as such in clearly marked sidebar boxes.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Table of Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 6

Taxonomic Classification ...................................................................................................................... 6

Genus, Species, and Status ................................................................................................................. 6

General Information ............................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 1. Ambient Environment ........................................................................................................ 9

1.1 Temperature and Humidity ............................................................................................................ 9

1.2 Light ................................................................................................................................................... 9

1.3 Water and Air Quality .................................................................................................................... 10

1.4 Sound and Vibration ..................................................................................................................... 11

Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment .................................................................................. 13

2.1 Space and Complexity .................................................................................................................. 13

2.2 Safety and Containment ............................................................................................................... 20

Chapter 3. Records ................................................................................................................................ 28

3.1 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 28

3.2 Types of Records .......................................................................................................................... 28

3.3 Permit Considerations .................................................................................................................. 29

3.4 Identification ................................................................................................................................... 29

Chapter 4. Transport ............................................................................................................................. 30

4.1 Preparations ................................................................................................................................... 30

4.2 Protocols ......................................................................................................................................... 31

Chapter 5. Social Environment ........................................................................................................... 34

5.1 Group Structure and Size ............................................................................................................ 34

5.2 Influence of Others and Conspecifics ........................................................................................ 34

5.3 Introductions and Reintroductions .............................................................................................. 35

Chapter 6. Nutrition ............................................................................................................................... 38

6.1 Nutritional Requirements .............................................................................................................. 38

6.2 Diets ................................................................................................................................................ 42

6.3 Nutritional Evaluations .................................................................................................................. 47

Chapter 7. Veterinary Care .................................................................................................................. 48

7.1 Veterinary Services ....................................................................................................................... 48

7.2 Transfer Examination and Diagnostic Testing Recommendations ........................................ 48

7.3 Quarantine ...................................................................................................................................... 49

7.4 Preventive Medicine ...................................................................................................................... 52

7.5 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization ...................................................................................... 60

7.6 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation.............................................. 65

Chapter 8. Reproduction ...................................................................................................................... 73

8.1 Reproductive Physiology and Behavior ..................................................................................... 73

8.2 Assisted Reproductive Technology ............................................................................................ 75

8.3 Pregnancy, Egg-laying/ Parturition ............................................................................................. 75

8.4 Birthing/Hatching Facilities .......................................................................................................... 81

8.5 Assisted Rearing ........................................................................................................................... 81

8.6 Contraception ................................................................................................................................. 87

Chapter 9. Behavior Management ..................................................................................................... 90

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

9.1 Animal Training .............................................................................................................................. 90

9.2 Environmental Enrichment ........................................................................................................... 92

9.3 Staff and Animal Interactions ...................................................................................................... 96

9.4 Staff Skills and Training ................................................................................................................ 96

Chapter 10. Research ............................................................................................................................ 98

10.1 Known Methodologies ................................................................................................................ 98

10.2 Future Research Needs ............................................................................................................. 99

Chapter 11. Other Considerations ................................................................................................... 100

11.1 Surplus Animals ........................................................................................................................ 100

11.2 Additional Information ............................................................................................................... 100

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. 101

References ............................................................................................................................................. 102

Appendix A: Accreditation Standards by Chapter ...................................................................... 112

Appendix B: Recordkeeping Guidelines for Group Accessions ............................................. 117

Appendix C: Guidelines for Creating and Sharing Animal and Collection Records .......... 121

Appendix D: AZA Policy on Responsible Population Management ....................................... 124

Appendix F: Ambassador (Program) Animal Policy and Position Statement ..................... 135

Appendix G: Browse List ................................................................................................................... 139

Appendix H: Target Serum and Tissue Nutrient Evaluations .................................................. 140

Appendix I: Helpful Husbandry Behaviors to Train .................................................................... 141

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Introduction

Preamble

AZA accreditation standards, relevant to the topics discussed in this manual, are highlighted in boxes

such as this throughout the document (Appendix A).

AZA accreditation standards are continuously being raised or added. Staff from AZA-accredited

institutions are required to know and comply with all AZA accreditation standards, including those most

recently listed on the AZA website (http://www.aza.org), which might not be included in this manual.

Taxonomic Classification

Table 1. Taxonomic classification for orangutans.

Classification

Taxonomy

Kingdom

Animalia

Phylum

Chordata

Class

Mammalia

Order

Primates

Suborder

Haplorhini

Family

Hominidae

Genus, Species, and Status

Table 2. Genus, species, and status information for orangutans.

Genus

Species

Common Name

USA Status

IUCN Status

AZA Status

Pongo pygmaeus

Bornean

Orangutan

Endangered

Critically

Endangered

Green SSP

Pongo abelii

Sumatran

Orangutan

Not Listed

Separately

Critically

Endangered

Green SSP

Pongo

pygmaeus x

abelii

Hybrid

Orangutan

Not Listed

Separately

Not Listed Red SSP

General Information

The information contained within this Animal Care Manual (ACM) provides a compilation of animal

care and management knowledge that has been gained from recognized species experts, including AZA

Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), AZA Species Survival Plan

Programs (SSPs), biologists, veterinarians,

nutritionists, reproduction physiologists, behaviorists and researchers (visit the AZA Animal Program

page

to contact these individuals). It is based on the most current science, practices, and technologies used in

animal care and management and is a valuable resource that enhances animal welfare by providing

information about the basic requirements needed and best practices known for caring for ex situ

orangutan populations. This ACM is considered a living document that is updated as new information

becomes available and at a minimum of every five years.

Information presented is intended solely for the education and training of zoo and aquarium personnel

at AZA-accredited institutions. Recommendations included in the ACM are not exclusive management

approaches, diets, medical treatments, or procedures, and may require adaptation to meet the specific

needs of individual animals and particular circumstances in each

institution. Statements presented throughout the body of the

manuals do not represent specific AZA accreditation standards of

care unless specifically identified as such in clearly marked

sidebar boxes. AZA-accredited institutions which care for

orangutans must comply with all relevant local, state, and federal

wildlife laws and/or regulations; AZA accreditation standards that

are more stringent than these laws and/or regulations must be

met (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.1.1).

The ultimate goal of this ACM is to facilitate excellent

orangutan management and care, which will ensure superior orangutan welfare at AZA-accredited

institutions. Ultimately, success in our orangutan management and care will allow AZA-accredited

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.1.1) The institution must comply with all

relevant local, state/provincial, and

federal wildlife laws and/or regulations. It

is understood that, in some cases, AZA

accreditation standards are more

stringent than existing laws and/or

regulations. In these cases the AZA

standard must be met.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

institutions to contribute to orangutan conservation, and ensure that orangutans are in our future for

generations to come.

Physical description: Orangutans are large-bodied apes with thin, shaggy hair, ranging from reddish-

orange to brown in color. They are the world’s largest arboreal animal and have long and flexible arms to

support their tree-living lifestyle. Orangutan arms are one and a half times longer than their legs, but they

also have very flexible, fully-rotating hips. Their feet are hand-like, enabling them to be exceptional

climbers. Orangutans have long fingers and opposable thumbs. Like all apes, they lack a tail. They are

sexually dimorphic, with distinct differences in appearance between sexually mature males and females.

Males are nearly twice the size of females. Only adult male orangutans develop cheek pads (flanges)

made of subcutaneous fibrous tissue, although not all adult males develop flanges. Although both males

and females have a sac hanging from their throat, the male sac is larger and may be used to propel

vocalizations across long ranges in dense jungle habitat. Both sexes are typically bearded. Orangutans

have 32 teeth and both males and females have powerful jaws capable of processing tough foods. Their

dexterous lips help them to detect food textures before eating.

Some differences have been noticed between Sumatran and Bornean orangutans’ physical

appearance and are listed in Table 3. The differences are generally most apparent in adult males.

Because of the considerable degree of individual variation in phenotype expression, the only way to

definitively determine an orangutan’s genetic classification is through genetic testing.

Table 3. Physical Characteristics of Bornean and Sumatran Orangutans*

Characteristic

Bornean (Pongo pygmaeus)

Sumatran (Pongo abelii)

Flanges

Jutting cheek pads, tend to curve forward

Lie flat against the face

Throat Sacs

Larger and more pendulous

Smaller and less pendulous

Hair Color

Tends to be darker in general

Tends to be lighter in general

Hair Length/Texture

Tends to be shorter/less dense

Tends to be longer/more dense

Facial Hair

Beard tends to be less noticeable

Beard tends to be more noticeable

Jaws

More robust jaws

Less robust jaws

*Adapted from: Bemmel, 1968; Jones, 1969; Groves, 1971; Mackinnon, 1975; Mallinson, 1978; Courtenay et al., 1988; Delgado &

van Schaik, 2000; Taylor, 2006

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Natural history: In the distant past, orangutans were likely to have roamed throughout Southeast and

mainland Asia, but are currently only found in Northern Sumatra and in Borneo (Goossens et al., 2009).

For many years, a debate about whether orangutans living on these two islands (which have been

separated for more than 8,000 years (Harrison et al., 2006)) were subspecies or more genetically distinct

and classifiable as separate species. Currently, most evidence suggests that there are two distinct

species – Pongo pygmaeus (Bornean orangutan) and Pongo abelii (Sumatran orangutan) (Goossens et

al., 2009) – while the Bornean species exists in three subspecies (P. p. morio, P. p. pygmaeus, P. p.

wurmbii) (Groves, 2002).

Orangutans are predominantly arboreal and live in the rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo. Their range

is restricted to a small area of northern Sumatra, and although they are more widespread across Borneo,

they exist primarily in areas of geographical isolation. Orangutans are diurnal, and the activity period

typically begins around sunrise and ends around sunset. Orangutan behavior and diet can vary

considerably depending on the specific habitat that they occupy, but in general, orangutans spend about

half of their day feeding. Orangutans are frugivorous, preferring fruit, but also eating flowers and insects

and falling back on leaves, non-leafy vegetation, and inner bark (Bastian et al., 2010).

Females show wide variation in home range size, with differences ranging from around 60 hectares to

over 850 hectares (summary in Singleton et al., 2009). Type of forest, quality of habitat, and food

availability are variables that affect home range size. Female home ranges overlap with those of other

females, and there is no obvious territoriality, although mutual avoidance is a commonly employed

strategy to avoid conflict (Knott et al., 2008). Although orangutans are often considered to be the most

solitary of the apes, evidence from several field sites suggests that females form clusters where several

females’ home ranges overlap. These females are often relatives, and show preferential association and

reproductive synchrony (Singleton & van Schaik, 2002). Male home range sizes are more difficult to study

because they are often larger than the size of a study area, but they are generally larger than those of

females. A rough estimate is that male ranges are 3–5 times the size of female ranges within the same

population of orangutans (Atmoko et al., 2009).

Male ranges may also overlap, but encounters between adult, flanged (having cheek pads) males are

rare and potentially dangerous when they do occur. Presence of females may affect the probability of

aggressive encounters when flanged males come in contact. Flanged and unflanged males will tolerate

one another and unflanged males often stay near flanged males, especially during consortships, but at a

relatively safe distance. If a flanged male is aggressive toward an unflanged male, it is unlikely to be very

violent. As a group, unflanged males tend to associate more than other males and may even travel

together and associate with females (Bastian, 2008; Atmoko et al., 2009). In general, conflicts between

males are rare because long calls mediate spacing among males (Mitani, 1985). In contrast, females

approach long calls (Mitra Setia & van Schaik, 2007).

Orangutans show an interest in sex at a young age, and may experiment with sexual activity before

they are sexually mature. However, in general, flanged males advertise their location and availability to

females by giving long calls and females travel in the appropriate direction. Females often prefer mating

with the dominant flanged male. Unflanged males are left to roam the forests looking for potential

reproductive partners, and may resort to forced copulations with females. This generally happens when

other males are not around. The fact that forced matings happen when other males are not around and

the fact that females travel in the direction of preferred males suggests that females often choose their

reproductive partners, and most often cooperatively mate with the male of their choice (Atmoko et al.,

2009).

Although orangutans may be the least gregarious of diurnal primates, they are not as solitary as once

believed. Instead, evidence suggests that orangutans form loose communities organized around a

dominant male that is the favored mating partner of multiple females. Females are likely to form clusters

with related females where interactions are relatively frequent. The females tend to avoid associations

with unflanged and non-dominant flanged males and remain within audible range of the dominant male.

This may be a strategy to avoid harassment from other males. Beyond this, groups of orangutans have

been seen congregating in large fruit trees at many study sites. It is also fairly common to see groups of

mothers and immatures together, or unflanged males associating with other unflanged males or

nulliparous females (Mitra Setia et al., 2009). The amount of sociality seen in managed groups of

orangutans provides additional evidence that orangutans are capable of being social, but there are

ecological pressures that prevent more frequent sociality in the wild.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Chapter 1. Ambient Environment

1.1 Temperature and Humidity

Animal collections within AZA-accredited institutions must be

protected or provided accommodation from weather and any

adverse conditions detrimental to their health or welfare (AZA

Accreditation Standard 1.5.7). Animals not normally exposed to

cold weather/water temperatures should be provided heated

enclosures/pool water. Likewise, protection from excessive cold

weather/water temperatures should be provided to those animals normally living in warmer climates/water

temperatures.

Before the 1930s, orangutans were often kept in high temperatures and humidity designed to reflect

their tropical homeland (Ulmer, 1957; Hediger, 1970). However, this produced ideal conditions for

bacterial diseases, which in combination with infectious contact with humans usually reduced the life span

of managed orangutans to only 4 to 5 years (Ulmer, 1957). Orangutans readily acclimate to regional

conditions. With heated night holding areas in cold climates and shelter and shade provided, orangutans

are usually adaptable to most environments (Brambell, 1975). The combination of low temperatures and

high humidity has also been linked to health problems in orangutans (McManamon & Bruner, 1990).

Orangutans require the ability to control their environment by moving to and from different

microenvironments within the exhibit. This is not only a physical need, but the variations within the exhibit

can be considered a form of behavioral enrichment or source of stimulation that can be controlled by the

orangutans (Ross, 2006; Ross et al. 2009).

Temperature and light are close correlates in nature. High, bright, basking perches can provide

supplemental heat, while darker areas can be cooler. Individual facilities are recommended to use a

variety of components to determine temperature guidelines. Minimum recommended average

temperatures are 18 °C (55 °F), with maximum temperatures of 28 °C (84 °F). Temperature limits can

vary with other ambient conditions (e.g., 10 °C (50 °F) may be acceptable depending on

sun/wind/precipitation conditions). Outdoor areas must be provided with shelter from sun, rain, and

chilling winds. Institutions should base their exhibit guidelines on these recommendations. A sufficient

number of shelters must be provided to prevent dominant animals from denying access to other animals

(Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Humidity levels should range between 30%–70%. McManamon and Bruner (1990) state that

orangutans are vulnerable to conditions of low temperature and high humidity. Humidity is strongly

affected by temperature and should be considered together with ventilation to provide a comfortable

environment. In a rainforest, humidity levels vary widely from hour to hour and location to location. For

example, humidity levels are much lower in the tree tops exposed to full sun than they are on the forest

floor. These gradients should be considered and emulated to the extent possible when designing large

indoor activity areas.

AZA institutions with exhibits which rely on climate control

must have critical life-support systems for the animal collection

and emergency backup systems available. Warning mechanisms

and backup systems must be tested periodically (AZA

Accreditation Standard 10.2.1).

Systems should be backed up by double redundancy in case

of equipment failure. Maintenance should be scheduled as

recommended by the manufacturer. Systems should be equipped

with alarms to monitor hazardous chemical or gas leaks, fire and

smoke, and failure of system and temperature range indicators.

Alarms should be set to dial out to specified, trained personnel for

appropriate response.

1.2 Light

Careful consideration should be given to the spectral, intensity, and duration of light needs for all

animals in the care of AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums. Illumination standards recommend that

illumination be uniformly diffused throughout the facility (AWR, 2005; NIH, 1972). A more naturalistic

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.7) The animals must be protected or

provided accommodation from weather or

other conditions clearly known to be

detrimental to their health or welfare.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(10.2.1) Critical life-support systems for

the animals, including but not limited to

plumbing, heating, cooling, aeration, and

filtration, must be equipped with a

warning mechanism, and emergency

backup systems must be available.

Warning mechanisms and emergency

backup systems must be tested

periodically.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.9) The institution must have a regular

program of monitoring water quality for

fish, marine mammals, and other aquatic

animals. A written record must be

maintained to document long-term water

quality results and chemical additions.

solution would be to provide a two-part lighting system. Light levels should vary following a natural model;

bright near the top of the space, darker at floor level. An override utility light system can take care of

cleaning and surveillance needs during the relatively short period of time each day when keepers are

present. NIH (1972) recommends at least 30 foot candles 1.0 m (3.3 ft.) above the floor. Mount fixtures in

waterproof and shatterproof enclosures (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Access to natural sunlight is strongly recommended and should be a basic design component. O’Neill

(1989) recommends viewing windows as a source of behavioral enrichment. Skylights or windows are

recommended to facilitate natural light cycles and gradual changes on a daily basis, such as dawn and

dusk. Fluorescent or natural spectrum bulbs are required when the animals do not have access to natural

sunlight. There are some health concerns associated with long-term exposure to artificial light, and

particular care should be given to the implications of unnatural light on primate health (Coe & LaRue,

1997).

1.3 Water and Air Quality

AZA-accredited institutions must have a regular program of

monitoring water quality for collections of aquatic animals and a

written record must document long-term water quality results and

chemical additions (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.9).

Monitoring selected water quality parameters provides

confirmation of the correct operation of filtration and disinfection

of the water supply available for the collection. Additionally, high

quality water enhances animal health programs instituted for

aquatic collections.

Air quality: Ventilation should be adequate to eliminate dampness and odor. Ventilation can be

unequally distributed, with greater flow near the floor to encourage evaporation and at high elevations to

mimic an arboreal breeze. Ten to fifteen air changes per hour are recommended for small areas that

contain high numbers of animals. This same level is used for areas of potential contamination such as

sterile surgical areas, necropsy rooms, and waste storage areas (NIH, 1972). Air entering animal rooms

should be fresh and exhausted without recirculation (100% air exchange in animal rooms or equivalent if

possible). Separate zoning of air systems to prevent cross contamination should be a part of any non-

human primate facility (McManamon & Brunner, 1990). Besch (1980) suggests that ventilation

requirements should be based upon a rate per animal. Woods et al. (1975) agrees with this approach and

found it an energy-efficient means to provide an odor-free environment. It is often wise to design a multi-

stage ventilation system, which can be run at low or high settings depending upon the animal occupancy

levels of the areas at a given time (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

All duct-work should be protected from the animals. No insulating material over duct work should be

within an animal’s reach (including accessibility with browse or other objects that can be used as tools to

extend the animal’s reach) or near areas to be hosed, unless waterproofed (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Water quality: Orangutans should have access to a constant supply of fresh clean water (Yerkes &

Yerkes, 1929; Brambell, 1975). In addition to using water for drinking, both wild and managed orangutans

often use water for play activities. Water troughs that refill automatically, waterfalls, shallow pools or

streams can provide sufficient water for drinking and play, without the risk of drowning (Brambell, 1975;

Maple, 1980; Jones, 1982).

Water should be fresh, potable and of human drinking quality. The most efficient way to offer drinking

water is through a nipple drinker, push-button, or other automatic system (e.g., Lixit

), though some

animals plug drinking lines up with straw, insert objects to cause continual operation, or dismantle them

(Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Drains, including trench drains, should be located outside of the enclosure in keeper aisles for ease of

cleaning. Drain covers should have small holes to prevent hay and food from clogging the drain. A basket

in the drain will also help. A minimum sanitary drain pipe size is 15 cm (6 in.). Large pipe size does not

prevent clogging. Pitch, water velocity, and maintenance practice should also be considered. Frequent

clean-out points are helpful. Drain-traps are required by the USDA (1991) to prevent the back-flow of

gases and sewage (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

1.4 Sound and Vibration

Consideration should be given to controlling sounds and vibrations that can be heard by animals in

the care of AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums. Acoustic environments in a zoo setting are much

different than a natural environment. Mechanical equipment required to move large volumes of air can be

a major source of indoor noise pollution and appropriate noise dampening techniques should be

incorporated into the design of building mechanical systems. Unfortunately, most noise absorbent

materials are not waterproof. The following can be used to reduce noise levels: resilient flooring, nylon or

polypropylene glides, cover plates, animal gates, deep bedding, electronic noise neutralizing devices,

environmental sounds, and music. Ideally, the animals could have the option to choose the sounds to

which they want to listen (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Orangutans hear a frequency of sounds similar to humans and thus are susceptible to noise and

vibratory annoyances that would also bother us. Indoor exhibits should particularly be monitored for noise

or vibrations that could potentially disturb the animals. Many exhibits are built to be easily cleaned, but

this may have the side effect of amplifying noises. A good rule of thumb is to try to mimic an environment

that the animals would experience in the wild. While they would definitely hear a cacophony of noise from

birds and insects, they would not hear the clanging of metal, the rumble of engines, or the screaming of

children.

Potential sources of sound: There are several possible sources of sound in and around orangutan

enclosures in zoos:

• Construction either in or adjacent to the orangutan area, including the humans involved in the

actual construction work.

• Mechanical equipment including heating and cooling equipment, air handlers, motors, water

pipes, automatic watering devices, any type of fans, cage washing machines, water feature

equipment such as pumps, filters, etc., horticultural equipment such as blowers, chain saws, lawn

mowers, etc.

• Humans including staff and public.

• Caging doors opening and closing.

• Enclosure concrete or gunite flooring and/or walls.

• Other orangutans or other species in nearby exhibits.

•

Outside urban sounds including sirens, airplanes, trains, highway traffic, etc.

• Miscellaneous noise from radios, TVs, loudspeakers, zoo amusement rides, telephones,

computers, video monitors, carts, etc.

Addressing and controlling sound: Construction should be scheduled around the orangutans and

scheduled at times when the orangutans can be properly housed as far as possible from construction

activities. For example, schedule necessary construction indoors during spring and summer so that

orangutans can be outdoors when the work occurs. All construction work should be dependent on the

orangutans’ movements. That is, construction work begins when animals are moved to other areas and

ends when orangutans should be moved back into the original area.

Mechanical equipment should be housed in rooms with appropriate doors and walls such that noise

from the equipment is greatly reduced. Soundproofing equipment can be used on the doors to minimize

noise and the doors should be kept closed at all times. Sound dampening products such as blankets or

membranes can also be hung on walls and/or around equipment safely to reduce noise levels. Vents

coming from mechanical rooms should also be evaluated for the amount of noise coming through. Any

pipes, fans, etc., throughout the orangutan holding area should be monitored and evaluated routinely for

rattling, squeaking, scraping, etc. Insulating all pipes will reduce rattling noises, but extra wrapping may

be necessary in areas where pipes cross each other and may knock together. Regular preventive

maintenance on all equipment reduces mechanical noise such as belt squeaking, unbalanced fans and

noisy ducts.

Humans working with or around the orangutans on a daily basis should be sensitive to the noise they

inadvertently add to the animals’ environment. Much of the noise that the orangutans are exposed to daily

will be created by care staff in the course of their routine work. Noise from hosing, raking, two-way radios,

AM/FM radios and other music players, opening and closing enclosures, opening and closing doors,

equipment such as pressure washers and power tools, telephones, loud talking, and yelling should be

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minimized. Recognition of the benefits of auditory stimulation in human well-being has prompted recent

research into the value of “sound enrichment,” including natural (species-typical) sounds of either

conspecifics, natural environments, or other sounds not typically found in the wild (e.g., music) (see

Wells, 2009 for review). Although formal research has not been carried out with orangutans, radio

broadcasts, a source of complex and variable auditory stimuli, have been shown to reduce aggression

and agitation, and increase social affiliations in laboratory-raised chimpanzees (Howell et al., 2003). This

type of enrichment, especially if it is controlled by the orangutans, may also be beneficial for them.

Further research should be done to examine what types of sound enrichment are most beneficial for

orangutans, but it is likely that similar results will be found. Staff should be conscious about using sound

enrichment by choosing sounds that are likely not to be abrasive, and give the animals the choice to turn

the sounds off.

Staff should be encouraged to view the orangutan enclosures as the orangutans’ home rather than

simply a work space, and this seems to help humans be more conscious of their own noise levels. Staff

should also be encouraged to remain calm while working with orangutans, even when the animals

themselves can be quite loud. Work with loud tools should be performed when the orangutans are not in

the immediate area and/or sound dampening blankets can be used if doing noisy work close by is

unavoidable.

In a study that manipulated the noise level of crowds viewing orangutans, the orangutans were found

to react more to loud crowds (Birke, 2002). Infants approached adults more frequently, and the

orangutans stared at the public more in the loud condition than when quiet groups were in front of the

exhibit. Although this does not necessarily indicate that orangutans are bothered by large crowds, it is

best to give them the option of a place to retreat in the event of loud crowds, especially if infants are in the

exhibit.

Finally, it is important to remember that, like humans, orangutans vary by individual. Some

orangutans may be more tolerant of loud, repetitive, or unusual noises than others. It is important to

continually observe orangutans and take note of any unusual behavior or demonstrations of annoyance

that may be due to sound.

Future research: We need more research to understand the effects of sound on managed animals in

general. For orangutans, it would be beneficial to explore how different types of sound enrichment affect

behavior and stress physiology. We also should undertake further research that explores the effects of

various crowd sizes and noise levels on orangutan welfare. We should scientifically explore if construction

or other environmental noises negatively affect welfare, and the limits within which animals can tolerate

such noises before experiencing diminished welfare.

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Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment

2.1 Space and Complexity

Careful consideration should be given to exhibit design so

that all areas meet the physical, social, behavioral, and

psychological needs of the species. Animals must be well cared

for and presented in a manner reflecting modern zoological

practices in exhibit design (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.1). All

animals must be housed in safe enclosures that meet their

physical and psychological needs, as well as their social needs

(AZA Accreditation Standards 1.5.2, 1.5.2.1, 1.5.2.2).

Orangutans have evolved in a vertically-oriented, highly

complex environment for millions of years and have lived in

managed, horizontally-oriented animal care facilities for only a

few score years. We often tend to build new exhibits by first

looking to existing exhibits at other zoos, but we should begin by

considering the orangutans’ tropical rainforest home, orangutan

physical and psychological needs, orangutan health, human

safety and ease of use in conjunction with previous exhibit

models before undertaking new construction.

In the wild, orangutans primarily move through the canopy

using both their arms and legs. One of the most important

aspects of the managed physical environment is the amount of

arboreal space available for both rest and locomotion (Maple,

1979; Maple & Stine, 1982; Jones, 1982). Horizontal arboreal

pathways and nesting/resting platforms are the main elements of the natural physical environment for

orangutans (Jones, 1982). The lack of opportunity for arboreal locomotion promotes lethargy and

contributes to obesity (Maple, 1980). The combination of lethargy and living on the ground causes health

hazards. Coprophagy or playing with feces often becomes more common, especially if there are no other

stimulating objects in the enclosure (Hill, 1966; Maple, 1980).

Resting platforms are necessary for orangutans to fully utilize climbing structures. There should be a

sufficient number of platforms so that dominant animals don’t exclude subordinates in the group. The

climbing structures also need to be designed to prevent subordinate animals from being trapped at a

dead-end. Platforms should be large enough for the orangutans to build nests for resting. The appropriate

size will vary with the size of the individual orangutans; critically, platforms must be sturdy enough to

support the weight of the orangutans as well as their nesting materials, which can at times be substantial.

Many orangutans have hung themselves by accidentally draping loose ropes around their necks. For

this reason care should be taken to ensure ropes or artificial vines do not have small enough diameters or

sufficient slack to be firmly secured around an orangutan’s neck. We recommend the use of fire hose

over rope in orangutan enclosures whenever possible. Fire hose is often available free of charge from

local fire departments.

Orangutan activity is maximized by small diameter climbing structures, which can be used for various

types of movement. To further stimulate activity, the climbing structures should also have a high degree

of movability (e.g., firehose and sway poles) and be appropriately spaced (about 2 m [6.5 ft.] apart).

Orangutans are adapted for an arboreal lifestyle, yet because of their supreme dexterity and strength,

they are usually provided with few climbing opportunities. In the wild, orangutans often move themselves

by causing branches, vines and small trees to sway in the desired direction until they can reach a new

handhold, transfer to a new perch and repeat the process. For this reason, sway poles are often a good

choice to promote arboreal locomotion. Resilient nests made from small branches and broad crotches in

larger trees provide rest areas. Most of the orangutan’s usable world is made of things that they can

move (Coe & LaRue, 1997). By contrast, most environments made for managed orangutans provide fixed

furnishings. Large diameter ropes and cargo nets have been used successfully to add the important

dimension of movement. Artificial vines made from synthetic fiber rope thinly coated with epoxy have

proven to hold up under heavy use and can satisfy aesthetic requirements for a natural appearance.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.2) All animals must be housed in

enclosures which are safe for the animals

and meet their physical and psychological

needs.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.1) All animals must be well cared for

and presented in a manner reflecting

modern zoological practices in exhibit

design, balancing animals’ welfare

requirements with aesthetic and

educational considerations.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.2.1) All animals must be kept in

appropriate groupings which meet their

social and welfare needs.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.2.2) All animals should be provided

the opportunity to choose among a variety

of conditions within their environment.

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However, these vines may need to be repaired frequently. Ensure that high safety standards are

employed when using these materials to reduce the risk of injury.

Artificial trees made of steel-reinforced concrete, although stoutly built, have sometimes been broken

by orangutans. As a lower cost alternative, many zoos have installed natural dead trees as climbing

structures. Appropriate species of healthy living trees cut for this purpose should be used. Trees that are

partly dead when cut are already greatly weakened by wood decay and will not last long. Also, it is

advised to remember that natural trees cannot be expected to last longer than 5 to 7 years before

becoming weakened. Crane access should be maintained to allow for tree replacement and should be

considered in determining maintenance budgets (Coe & LaRue, 1997). Heavy timbers treated with

preservatives will last longer than untreated ones, but types of preservatives vary widely in their toxicity to

mammals. Institutions should determine that preservatives used pose no hazard to the animals.

Design of exhibit features allowing food enrichment, resting platforms, and functional arboreal

pathways to be provided high in climbing structures may encourage much greater activity among

orangutans of all ages. One unique approach to keeping animals arboreal is to design an exhibit where

the floor is flooded so that animals prefer remaining on their elevated structures (Hebert & Bard, 2000).

Most orangutan exhibits tend to be circular, oval, or square with little opportunity to move about. Wild

orangutans, by contrast, cover wide areas in search of food, following well defined aerial pathways.

Ideally, orangutan exhibits would more closely follow this natural model, being linear or perhaps even

forming circuits, with continuous overhead pathways. Elevated foraging areas should be provided along

the way to encourage use. One AZA institution has connected orangutan exhibits at different sides of the

zoo by providing an arboreal cable pathway that crosses the zoo (Coe & Dykstra, 2010). This ensures

that the orangutans are able to experience locomotion as they would in the wild. Several other zoos have

since incorporated similar arboreal cable pathways into new or refurbished enclosures. Long, narrow

exhibits allow large trees to grow on both sides, out of reach of the orangutans. These can provide

desirable shade, backdrop and ambience.

Recommendations:

• Useable arboreal space should be one of the major parameters used to measure the relative

value of different designs.

• Maximum bar/rope width 75 mm (3 in.).

• Ideal reach distance (e.g., bars and ropes) is 2 m (6.56 ft.). This should also include routes for

young animals with smaller arm spans.

• Structures should be designed to prevent subordinate animals from being trapped by dominant

animals by including escape routes.

• Climbing structures should be at least 4 m (13 ft.) from the top of external walls or fences and 2 m

(6.56 ft.) from the base of the wall.

• There should be several resting/sitting areas for every orangutan housed in an exhibit to avoid

monopolization.

• Ropes should be of sufficient diameter or have limited movement (e.g., fixed tightly at both ends)

to prevent accidental hangings. Large knots should be tied every 45.72 cm (18 in.) to prevent

hanging even if wrapped around an orangutan’s neck. Firehose is a recommended safer

alternative to rope.

• Care should be taken to monitor rope or fire hose condition; as rope/fire hose begins to fray, it

can catch apes’ fingers and toes, as well become a hanging hazard.

Foraging: Orangutans spend 40% to 60% of their activity budget in the wild foraging for food depending

on resource availability (Delgado & van Schaik, 2000; Bastian 2008). It is a good idea to design foraging

opportunities into the exhibit. Places to forage at an elevated level are advised. Trees designed with

special holes to encourage tool use, or other puzzle-feeder devices, greatly improve exhibit complexity for

orangutans. It is also beneficial to design elevated feeding devices that can be moved periodically to

promote novelty. When designing and placing arboreal feeding locations in an orangutan enclosure,

ensure that they can be readily accessed by staff for cleaning and other maintenance.

Resting and sleeping: Nest building is an important part of the orangutan’s behavioral repertoire. Wild

orangutans build exclusively arboreal nests, but managed individuals are known to sleep in ground nests.

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It is important to provide elevated platforms so that orangutans have the opportunity to build elevated

nests both in their daytime exhibit and evening holding area. Wild orangutans build both daytime and

nighttime nests for resting and sleeping. A variety of materials should be provided to promote nest

building, such as hay, wood wool, straw, burlap, blankets, and branches. It is recommended to provide

enough nesting material so that each orangutan in the group can build a nest that is comfortable for

resting/sleeping. What defines as comfortable will vary depending on nesting material, location of nest

and size/physical state of the individual, but wild orangutans on average build nests that are 19.6 cm

deep (van Casteren et al., 2012).

Social considerations: It is normally accepted that providing the correct social environment for managed

animals is one of the major necessities for their wellbeing. There is also a large variation in potential

orangutan sociability according to age and sex. Juveniles and sub-adults are naturally more social than

are adults. Zoo-living orangutans may be more social than wild individuals, but there is large variation in

sociability between individual animals in both environments. With such individual, life history, sex and

demographic variation, it is important to design exhibits that will be suitable for a wide range of sociality

among residents. This may be done by designing numerous flexible spaces that can be joined together

for larger group access, or divided (via gates or panels) to accommodate numerous smaller social groups.

In the wild, adult females establish individual home range territories. Although these ranges may overlap

with other familiar females, there is little overlap with unfamiliar and unrelated females. Orangutans seem

to go to great lengths to avoid these meetings. Given this, it is a good idea to provide room for cohabiting

females to establish individual territories. In addition, housing of related females has the potential to

reduce friction between adult females.

The question with orangutans is not the extent to which they are solitary or gregarious, but rather

what level of social contact they require. It is seldom possible to provide all individuals with their preferred

level of social contact, due to the large variation in the typical level of social contact among sex/age

classes, as well as among individuals.

One option could be to house all orangutans in one area and provide a level of choice through a

diverse and complex environment, with multiple internal visual barriers. Smaller areas to some extent can

be made effectively larger by increasing the functional complexity of the internal environment. Another

option may be to house the orangutans in more natural social units (i.e., adult female with up to two

dependent offspring and solitary adult males and sub-adults of both sexes), and allow the keepers to

regulate the level of physical contact between groups according to individual temperament, taking animal

behavioral cues and safety into account. There are as many options as there are individual orangutan

preferences.

Numbers of orangutans: The more orangutans each zoo holds, the more zoos can contribute to genetic

diversity in the AZA Orangutan Species Survival Plan

. This, of course, has resource implications for

zoos. There are at least two factors that need to be considered when deciding the number of orangutans

to hold. The first is whether or not there are adequate facilities for the zoo to hold a minimum of a

breeding pair and associated offspring. The second is whether the zoo is equipped to keep offspring of

both sexes long enough to ensure that maternal behaviors and other key species-specific behaviors are

passed down from one generation to the next. Although orangutans are often described as solitary, this

ignores the fact that they have a rich social system. Although contact between individuals is less frequent

and less physical than in other great ape species, social contact is just as important for their

psychological well-being as it is for the African great apes. This is especially true in relation to the mother-

infant relationship. Rejection of the infant by the mother is particularly harmful to zoo-living orangutans

who are hand-reared. Hand-rearing infants can increase physical and psychological problems and also

increases the likelihood that hand-reared females will, upon attaining adulthood, reject their own infants

(Cocks, 1998).

Recommendations:

• The births of infants should be spaced to allow maturing orangutans (both females and males) to

gain social experience with infants prior to being recommended to breed themselves.

• Females should not be bred before the age of fourteen, nor should they be bred if they are

rearing an infant less than 6 years of age.

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Additional features: To provide the best possible environment for managed orangutans, there are

several other accommodations that will maximize health and welfare for the animals:

• Weigh stations

• Urine collection areas

• Overhead mesh chutes (to allow choice of travel destination)

• Medical treatment areas that allow procedures to be done without moving orangutans from the

building

• Restraint devices that orangutans are trained to comfortably enter to reduce the need for

anesthesia during medical procedures

• Specialized research observation areas to enhance data collection, which should be an integral

part of the management plan

• Caregiver service areas that allow for optimal levels of management, observation, and interaction

• Introduction areas with “howdy” areas with mesh barriers for visual, tactile and olfactory contact

between adjacent spaces

• Access ports to allow connection of a blood sleeve or facilitate ultrasound procedures

• Numerous attachment points for furniture/structures to ensure flexibility when changing the

enclosure layout

Exhibit complexity: An integral consideration for zoo and aquarium environments is complexity of

design. This refers to the overall variation in the environment (e.g., topography, trees, shade, sunny

areas, climbing structures, puzzle feeders, tall grass, swampy areas, streams, pools, large rocks, smooth

areas, rough areas, and various sights and sounds). Designing features that mimic the complexity and

variety of experiences that wild orangutans have will greatly aid the promotion of species-appropriate

behaviors and development.

Enrichment: It is a USDA requirement that behavioral and environmental enrichment be provided (and

documented) to all non-human primates on a regular basis to promote the psychological well-being of the

animals (AWR, 2005). Providing enrichment during periods of confinement indoors is essential. Lack of

appropriate enrichment has been associated with an increase in social aggression and abnormal

behaviors in apes (Maple, 1979; Clarke et al., 1982; Maple & Hoff, 1982). Holding areas should be able to

accommodate a variety of enrichment items, and to allow for frequent rotation of the items. This will

ensure a high degree of novelty that helps to promote psychological well-being. Enrichment should be

rotated frequently to provide novel experiences. Multiple attachment points for ropes, vines, and other

hanging enrichment (such as feeders and puzzles) will facilitate these changes. Attention should also be

given to safety and toxicity concerns when providing any type of enrichment. See Chapter 9, section 9.2

of this manual for further enrichment ideas.

Control: In the wild, orangutans have substantial control over their environment. There is a growing

understanding that providing managed animals with increased control over their environment is essential

for maximizing welfare. Elements of control might include being able to choose social partners or

microenvironments (e.g., access to outdoors, shade, or preferred locations), but can range to more

complex forms of control such as controlling heaters, water spritzers, music, lights, curtains separating

them from the public, and food-scattering devices. Additionally, hiding places should be provided so that

orangutans can withdraw from the public’s view when desired (Hebert & Bard, 2000).

Outdoor access: Access to outdoor exhibit space is highly recommended.

Horticulture: Orangutans in outdoor exhibits are commonly kept on grass. When growing grass, a

rapidly-draining growing medium prevents the formation of muddy areas, but increases the need for

fertilization. In order for this to be successful, an adjacent space for the animals to live in while the

plantings are established is recommended. This works best in larger exhibits (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Electrified wire plant protection systems work well with many individual orangutans and are worth using,

but are not totally orangutan-proof. Some animals are adept at short-circuiting the systems, while others

seem to enjoy grasping the wires.

Fiberglass or epoxy has been used to make realistic artificial bark structures, which protect the trunks

of larger trees in exhibits. Electrified aerial roots or other hot wire configurations at the top of these 4 m

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums

(12 ft. to 13 ft.) structures discourage climbing. This allows the animals free access to the base of the

protected tree, providing much needed shade.

Exhibit substrates: Exhibit designers may want to consider the bio-floor as night-quarters floor surface.

This floor uses a deep litter system on top of a drainage membrane. It has been shown to be time-

efficient, hygienic, and more stimulating for the orangutans. Deep bedding, if feasible, works best in areas

where it is contained by walls or curbs and where provisions are made for easy removal and replacement

(Coe & LaRue, 1997). Chamove et al. (1982) have shown that deep bedding facilitates behavioral

enrichment and inhibits bacterial growth over time. There are examples of zoos that have successfully

used bio-floors. Observed problems have been reduced opportunity to collect urine samples and wood

frames rotting. Some recommendations when using bio-floor are:

• Depth: minimum 40 cm (15 in.), optimum 50 cm (19 in.)

• Coat concrete first

• Use natural soaps only

• Never remove substrate

• Check pH twice a year (Low pH is below 7)

• If vermin get in the substrate, the floor should be flooded with water

Wall, ceiling and floor materials/surfaces: Walls are usually constructed of poured concrete, concrete

masonry units (CMU), or fired clay tiles or blocks. Where hollow units are used, walls should be fully

reinforced and the interior voids filled with grout to form solid walls to prevent the animals from breaking

through the surface, scratching away the mortar or removing blocks. Solid walls should also provide

support for a wide variety of surface-mounted structures and equipment. Pipes and conduits are often

built into walls where they cannot be reached by the animals. Pipe and duct wall penetrations must be

sealed (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Wall surfaces should be cleanable with no small irregularities or pits where fecal material can collect.

The following are the most common types:

• Concrete walls that are plastered with a waterproof Portland cement plaster and painted with an

epoxy-based paint.

• Masonry walls, which have joints struck flush and are treated with a block-filler to remove pits and

painted.

•

Glazed masonry units may be used, making sure to use grout between the tiles (Coe & LaRue,

1997).

Exhibit size: There is no rule for exhibit size except to

acknowledge that there is no way a zoo can provide a space that

comes close to wild parameters. Although functional complexity

and shape of an exhibit can decrease some of the adverse

effects of small exhibits, designers should take into account that

certain benefits of volume and surface area cannot be provided

for in any other way: the bigger the better.

The same careful consideration regarding exhibit size and

complexity and its relationship to the orangutan’s overall well-

being must be given to the design and size of all enclosures,

including those used in exhibits, holding areas, hospital, and

quarantine/isolation (AZA Accreditation Standard 10.3.3).

Sufficient shade must be provided by natural or artificial means

when sunlight is likely to cause overheating or discomfort to the

animals (AZA Accreditation Standard 10.3.4).

Indoor areas: The requirements of holding areas can vary

according to the type of husbandry use intended, the number of animals expected to use it concurrently,

and the amount of time they are expected to occupy the space. Of course, most spaces will be used for a

variety of functions (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

AZA Accreditation Standard

(10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits,

holding areas, hospital, and

quarantine/isolation) must be of a size

and complexity sufficient to provide for

the animal’s physical, social, and

psychological well-being. AZA housing

guidelines outlined in the Animal Care

Manuals should be followed.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(10.3.4) When sunlight is likely to cause

overheating of or discomfort to the

animals, sufficient shade (in addition to

shelter structures) must be provided by

natural or artificial means to allow all

animals kept outdoors to protect

themselves from direct sunlight.

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Shift rooms: Shift rooms would normally be used by up to two compatible animals for a few hours or less

while other areas are cleaned or during transfer operations.

Day rooms: Day rooms, also known as community rooms or exercise rooms, are larger. The minimum

desirable size room to consider is 3.66 m long x 6.10 m wide x 6.10 m high (12 ft. x 20 ft. x 20 ft.). A

minimum guideline of 200 cubic meters per individual is suggested, with the caveat that this

recommendation will be suitable for some groups, but may not be enough space for others.

A much taller space is desirable to accommodate the orangutans’ vertical space orientation. Day

rooms should provide opportunities for enrichment with multiple opportunities for climbing, perching,

feeding, exploration, manipulation or other physically and mentally stimulating activities. Day rooms

should be complex enough to allow individuals to separate themselves from others if they wish. Many of

the recommendations made previously regarding orangutan climbing structures apply to the furnishing of

the day rooms. Ad lib access to water is also advised (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Day rooms can be used for positive reinforcement training sessions, so locking ports where materials

can be transferred back and forth may be useful. A ‘howdy’ wall or gate is needed for this purpose. This is

a double mesh barrier through which animals can touch each other without full physical contact (Coe &

LaRue, 1997). In many zoos, day rooms may also be public exhibits. In facilities with larger collections,

day rooms provide exercise opportunities for animals that are not on public exhibit.

Quarantine areas: Quarantine areas are used to isolate animals that are ill or undergoing health

screening. Waste drainage should be separate from other holding areas to prevent cross-contamination

(McManamon & Bruner, 1990; USDA, 1991). These enclosures are similar to night rooms and day rooms,

but are isolated from other animal zones and have negative air pressure relative to the surrounding areas.

Quarantine areas should ideally connect to the outside service area so that new animals can be brought

in without contaminating other holding areas (Coe & LaRue, 1997). There should also be separate HVAC

systems for quarantine areas. Medical areas should include the following features as recommended by

McManamon and Bruner (1990):

• An examination room for taking blood samples, suturing wounds, and other minor surgical

procedures. This room should be able to hold veterinary equipment and supplies.

• Emergency equipment including oxygen, electrocardiogram machine, heat lamps, intravenous

fluids, anesthetics, and immobilization equipment.

•

A radiograph unit should be available for fractures (if animals are young, a portable unit may be

sufficient).

• A small laboratory with a microscope for examination of fecal samples. Other laboratory analyses,

such as blood tests, can be performed on-site or at another facility.

• A separate necropsy room with its own entrance if other facilities do not exist within a reasonable

distance; cooler or refrigerator and storage or incinerator.

• A sterile surgical area.

Night quarters/holding enclosures: Night quarters, night rooms or holding enclosures should be no

smaller than 2.4 m wide x 3.5 m deep x 2.4 m high (8 ft. x 12 ft. x 8 ft.). Night quarters usually have

elevated sleeping platforms or nesting provisions and ad lib access to water. Flexible provisions for

behavioral enrichment are suggested, and animals should be given as much control as possible over their

environment (Coe & LaRue, 1997). When orangutans are shifted for cleaning, training, or enrichment, this

is an opportunity to monitor their health and collect urine and fecal samples.

Ideally, there should be space for each adult orangutan (or adult female with a dependent infant) to

have its own individual night quarter/holding enclosure for the eventuality where such separation may be

needed. Even if this were not the current practice of the zoo, the variation in the groups over time and

individuals would make this a sensible design parameter. Orangutans should be able to be housed

comfortably in these enclosures for extended periods of time. This will allow for appropriate animal

holding space when exhibit repairs/modifications need to be made or when there are health issues that

require orangutans to be held off exhibit. Be sure to include enough enclosure space to shift animals to

adjacent enclosures for cleaning if off exhibit areas are at capacity. The provision of an interchangeable

night quarter door with an opening for the attachment of a transport crate allows for crate training of out-

going animals and the quick release of incoming animals. Although metabolic squeeze cages are used

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less frequently with the increased use of positive reinforcement training, squeeze cages can provide an

additional management tool. They are usually most effective when they are placed in areas where the

orangutans move through them on a daily basis.

Some other recommendations for this space are:

• The area should be rodent- and pest-resistant.

• Adequate lighting should be provided for orangutans in these areas for routine husbandry and

keeper observation of the animals (minimum of 30 foot candles, 1 m [3.3 ft.] above the floor is

suggested). A proper day/night light cycle should be maintained for orangutans who are housed

in these areas. Twelve hours of light followed by 12 hours of darkness is suggested and can be

maintained via programmable light timers.

• Public or other noise around the orangutans should be eliminated, or at least reduced to a

minimum.

• Night quarter/holding enclosures should provide arboreal nesting sites. Suitable nesting materials

should always be provided on a daily basis.

• Drainage should be outside of the enclosure and flow into adequately-sized gutters/sanitary

drains.

• Floors should slope to the drain and be covered with epoxy-based paint.

• Walls should be coated with a durable, smooth, and easily cleanable surface such as epoxy-

based paint.

• Enclosure ceiling should ideally allow for arboreal locomotion. This can be accomplished via a

mesh enclosure ceiling or by installing attachment points in the ceiling so that arboreal enclosure

furnishings can be installed.

• Food hoppers should be incorporated to provide more flexibility in feeding.

• Steel bars are not recommended as they allow possible dangerous contact between the

orangutan and keeper.

• Suggested maximum gaps between doors and other adjacent structural features are 3 cm (1 in.).

• Doors should open into the night quarters/holding enclosures.

• All night quarters should be connected with shift doors to enable orangutans to move throughout

as allowable.

• Horizontal shift doors should be pushed to open in order to reduce injury to the keeper from the

handle if the orangutan throws the door open. Ratcheted shift door handles or doors that can be

opened to adjustable sizes (“creeped”) are also beneficial from a safety standpoint as well as

being effective for animal management.

• The ability to attach a crate for animal transport and crate training prior to transport is strongly

recommended. This could be accomplished by having an interchangeable night quarter/holding

enclosure door with an opening for the attachment of a transport crate or by having crate

attachment points built into the enclosure. Ensure that when the crate is in place it is secure

enough to prevent an orangutan from escaping.

Cleaning: Maintaining a clean and safe living environment helps to prevent disease transfer. The Animal

Welfare Act requires that indoor primary enclosures be cleaned at least daily (AWR, 2005). Enclosure

disinfection can be accomplished by application of a phenolic disinfectant, sodium hypochlorite, or

quaternary ammonium disinfectant. All surfaces that the orangutans come in contact with (including

transfer crates and restraint equipment) should be scrubbed manually, and thoroughly rinsed and dried

with a squeegee. If possible, high-pressure water or steam-cleaning twice monthly will help remove

buildup of organic material on surfaces (Lee & Guhad, 2001). When doing this, orangutans should be

shifted into a separate air space and staff should wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).

Indoor enclosures: The indoor surfaces that the orangutans come into contact with should be designed

with cleaning protocols in mind. Many surfaces can be smooth and impervious to debris and moisture so

that cleaning and disinfecting is possible. Some indoor areas may have bedding as well, and cleaning

protocols will depend on the specific substrate that is present. Sharp edges should be avoided in the

design of indoor enclosures, and rough surfaces may make cleaning more labor-intensive. Construction

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

should be of durable material to withstand regular cleaning and disinfection, as well as rough handling by

the orangutans. Surfaces that the orangutans come into contact with should be free of rust and free of

peeling or chipped paint. Wood is an acceptable material for climbing structures and though it cannot be

sanitized, it can be replaced when it is overly soiled.

Outdoor enclosures: The method for cleaning outdoor exhibits will vary with the type of substrate. Natural

indoor or outdoor exhibits with dirt or other absorbent substrates should be spot-cleaned on a regular

basis. This will ensure that the animal can avoid contact with feces and food waste, which reduces the

number of pathogens and pests. The use of biotic substrates, such as mulch floors, will help control

bacteria levels. The frequency of cleaning will depend on the size of the exhibit and the number of

animals.

2.2 Safety and Containment

Animals housed in free-ranging environments should be

carefully selected, monitored and treated humanely so that the

safety of these animals and persons viewing them is ensured

(AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.3). It is not recommended that

orangutans be housed in such environments.

Animal exhibits and holding areas in all AZA-accredited

institutions must be secured to prevent unintentional animal

egress (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.1). All animal exhibit

and holding area air and water inflows and outflows must also be

securely protected to prevent animal injury or egress (AZA

Accreditation standard 1.5.15). Pest control methods must be

administered so there is no threat to the animals, staff, public,

and wildlife (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.8.1). Exhibit design

should be considered carefully to ensure that all areas are secure

and particular attention should be given to shift doors, gates,

keeper access doors, locking mechanisms and exhibit barrier

dimensions and construction. The use of sign boards and public

announcement (PA) systems by staff for communicating animal

containment and movement, as well as closed circuit video

systems for animal monitoring may additionally improve the

safety of work areas.

Orangutans should be considered potentially dangerous

animals. Therefore, safety and security are important elements of

facility design. Security design has two main goals: to keep

unqualified people away from the animals, and to contain the

animals and prevent their escape. Since safety is clearly linked to

knowledge and experience, a well-designed animal care facility can be thought of as a series of security

zones granting greater degrees of access based upon qualification to interact with the animals (Coe &

LaRue, 1997). Institution-wide security is usually a fence or other barrier whose characteristics are

governed by the USDA or other standards. Its purpose is to keep out unwanted people and stray dogs,

and it may serve as a back-up containment barrier. General service areas are usually accessible to any

staff or delivery person. It is essential that these areas be well separated from animal areas. Outdoor

areas include service drives and yards and planting areas. Indoor areas include staff and food

preparation areas and mechanical equipment rooms (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Secondary animal security areas are those areas immediately adjoining areas containing animals.

Since these are the first areas into which any animal escapes occur, they should be designed to be as

“orangutan-proof” as possible. It is essential that staff have complete visibility of these areas before

entering. ”Blind spots” should be avoided. Some facilities use parabolic mirrors to compensate for these

problems, but it is better to eliminate such areas altogether. Where corridors change direction and blind

spots are unavoidable, careful placement of an additional mesh barrier and security doors can provide an

additional security zone with good visibility (Coe & LaRue, 1997). Darting portals or other means to shift

an animal without entering the space are very useful in emergency situations and should be considered in

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.3.1) All animal exhibits and holding

areas must be secured to prevent

unintentional animal egress.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.8.1) Pest control management

programs must be administered in such a

manner that the animals, paid and unpaid

staff, the public, and wildlife are not

threatened by the pests, contamination

from pests, or the control methods used.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.3.3) Special attention must be given

to free-ranging animals so that no undue

threat is posed to either the institution’s

animals, the free-ranging animals, or the

visiting public. Animals maintained where

they will be in contact with the visiting

public must be carefully monitored, and

treated humanely at all times.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.15) All animal exhibit and holding

area air and water inflows and outflows

must be securely protected to prevent

animal injury or egress.

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums

the design process. Installing surveillance cameras in orangutan areas can also be a very useful tool for

routine observations as well as for emergencies.

Primary animal security areas are those areas normally occupied by the animals and those areas

occasionally occupied by unrestrained animals such as shift areas and transfer chutes. It is essential that

staff in secondary animal security zones have excellent visibility into primary security areas so that staff

can verify that rooms are empty and secure before they enter (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Where secondary security areas provide access into large complex indoor or outdoor exercise or

display areas, it may not be possible to ensure complete visibility of the area before entering. Therefore,

the following two precautions are essential: 1) Excellent visibility of the animal area immediately beyond

the door, including overhead space, and 2) The ability for staff to quickly account for the location of all

animals to determine that no animals are present prior to opening the door. Provisions should be made to

ensure that animals will not be released into any area that is already occupied by another staff member

(Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Enclosure and gate materials (adapted from Coe & LaRue, 1997): “Orangutans are highly intelligent,

extremely persistent, patient, strong and skilled at dismantling equipment. They have been known to use

their fingernails as highly effective ‘screwdrivers’” (McManamon & Bruner, 1990). Other examples include

using their fingers to loosen bolts and nuts tightened with automatic wrenches, and opening locks with

pieces of wire and other items they have hidden under their tongues and lips.

Hot-dipped galvanized steel is the most commonly used material for enclosure construction. Stainless

steel is preferred, but is much more expensive. For the enclosure front, many new facilities have used 6

mm (1/4 in.) x 5 cm (2 in.) x 5 cm (2 in.) crimped steel mesh. This is preferred over welded wire mesh

because the welds can be broken by orangutans. Spiral weave (chain-link) mesh has been used,

although some animals have unwoven it. Steel bars are not recommended as they allow the animals to

reach through the barrier more readily than mesh.

Gates between adjacent holding areas should be located near the enclosure front to facilitate animal

visibility and prevent animal injury during transfer. Two well-separated gates into major animal activity

areas should be included so that a dominant animal cannot block other animals from entering or exiting

the area. The size of animal gate opening in orangutan facilities ranges from 81 cm

(31.9 in.

) to 102 cm

(40.2 in.

Factors to consider in selecting a gate movement system include: 1) Frequency of operation; 2) Cost

of construction; 3) Frequency of maintenance; 4) Back-up system requirements; and 5) Staff experience.

Plastic materials have the advantage of being better thermal insulators for outside gates and allow some

light penetration. They are also lighter in weight, quieter than steel, do not rust and reduce the amount of

friction during operation.

Gate closure systems vary widely. Hydraulic gates are used and provide excellent operator control,

considerable power, and can be fixed in any location. If the orangutans could conceivably gain access to

the hydraulic hose, non-toxic hydraulic fluid such as water or vegetable oil should be used. Electric

powered gates have also been used. These operate smoothly, lock in any position, but are slow. Both of

these systems require back-up in case of power failure.

Manually operated gates include vertical (guillotine) and horizontal (sliding) gates. Swing (hinged)

gates are not recommended. Guillotine and sliding gates with a single operating cable have been

developed using spring or counter weight-powered throw bolts to lock the gate in a variety of positions.

While these gates operate well under ideal conditions, experience has shown that they require frequent

adjustment and that debris in the bottom track can prevent closure. Guillotine gates with a continuous

steel cable or chain drive have been effective. It can be locked in a variety of positions by securing the

operating wheel. Horizontal sliding gates can be operated by any of the above systems or by the use of a

push/pull bar. This is the simplest and most cost-effective form of gate operating systems. Placement of

the gate will determine whether pushing or pulling on the handle opens the gate. Pushing to open the

gate is safer for the keeper operating it. If the animal forcibly opens the gate, the push rod is thrown away

from rather than toward the keeper.

All gates should have a highly visible and unambiguous locking device, to allow staff to immediately

confirm that the gate is secure. Gate control points should provide a clear view of the gates being

operated with good view of both sides of each gate while being located well out of reach of the animals. A

lock should not be used to hold any slide, gate, or door closed. Locks are not intended as the mechanical

securing mechanism.

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Positive reinforcement training should be used to condition the animals to transfer. No mechanical

system can compensate for problems with animal transfer procedures. For example, the smallest

orangutan can effectively block the most powerful gate closure mechanism by simply putting a hand or

foot in the opening, thus preventing the gate from closing. Using rapidly moving gates is dangerous and

may discourage reliable animal transfers in the future.

Keeper access doors: Normal human access doors are usually 0.9 m (3 ft.) x 2 m (6.6 ft.). Wider and/or

taller doors should be provided where access is required for replacing deep bedding, browse or exhibit

furnishings. Doors into animal areas should provide good visibility. When glass view-ports are used, they

should be made of an adequate thickness of laminated safety glass. Access doors at barrier walls should

be constructed so the animals can’t climb them.

Hinged doors should swing into the animal area and be designed so they cannot be opened into the

keeper area. They should be latched at both top and bottom, not just in the middle. Sliding doors are also

satisfactory provided that they are continuously supported on both top and bottom.

Exhibits in which the visiting public is not intended to have contact with animals must have a barrier of

sufficient strength and/or design to deter such contact (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.6). The public

visitor zone is the area used by zoo guests. Barriers between the public and areas into which animals can

reach are generally 1.07 m (3.5 ft.) high with openings no greater

than 10.16 cm (4 in.) in any direction. There should be no

horizontal members, which could form a ladder. When this barrier

is not an exhibit viewing area and is hidden by vegetation, many

facilities have used 1.22 m (4 ft.) or higher steel mesh fencing.

Each facility should verify the appropriate height for public

security barriers based upon local government ordinances (Coe

& LaRue, 1997). Inside buildings, the public is generally

separated from staff and animal areas by locked doors.

Barriers to contain orangutans: There are essentially seven kinds of barriers used to confine

orangutans. They are dry moats, glass barriers, electric barriers, mesh enclosures, deep water moats,

wall/fences, towers, or a combination of these barriers.

Glass barriers: Glass barriers are effective against the transmission of human diseases (Maple, 1979).

The thickness of the glass varies with the size of the opening and should be determined by a glass

specialist. Unshaded glass barriers are used by many zoos as outdoor barriers. If the intent is to create

an invisible barrier, reflections quickly give it away. Reflections also make viewing through unprotected

glass nearly impossible under certain viewing conditions. To minimize reflections, viewing glass should be

covered such that the viewing area is much darker than the area viewed (Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Orangutans can easily break glass if they have access to hard objects such as stones or steel. Annealed

or tempered laminated glass with PVB inner layer and glass with intermediate acrylic layers will remain

intact if broken, but the damage is done. Acrylic and other glass substitutes are unbreakable, but can

easily be scratched. Glass and acrylic of sufficient strength to contain orangutans is also very expensive

(Coe & LaRue, 1997).

Electric barriers: Electric barriers are regularly neutralized by orangutans and are therefore not

acceptable as a primary means of constraint. Electric barriers can serve a function as secondary barriers.

For example, these may be useful for protecting the vegetation inside an exhibit. If electric barriers are

used inside an exhibit they should be of sufficient height and contain a sufficient number of strands to

prevent orangutans scaling the fence or shorting out all the wire too frequently. Placement height is

critical as to avoid any use of behavioral enrichment by the orangutans to neutralize the hot wires. The

suggested minimum height for electric barriers is 3 m (10 ft.) from substrate, with a minimum distance

between wires of 10 cm (4 in.). The first 1.5 m (5 ft.) should all be positive wires, and the top 1.5 m (5 ft.)

can alternate between positive and negative wires. The suggested maximum strength is 6,000 volts, with

a minimum of 3,300 volts. The suggested peak current is 6.4 amps. Electric barriers should only be used

as secondary barriers to contain orangutans.

Mesh enclosures: Mesh exhibits are the most secure of the barriers used to contain orangutans. They

have the advantage of maximizing the amount of arboreal space per area, while allowing for behavioral

enrichment and enclosure furniture to be attached throughout. It is challenging to make mesh enclosures

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.3.6) There must be barriers in place

(for example, guardrails, fences, walls,

etc.) of sufficient strength and/or design to

deter public entry into animal exhibits or

holding areas, and to deter public contact

with animals in all areas where such

contact is not intended.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

visually appealing. Orangutans can dig into the ground; therefore the mesh of the enclosure should be

extended under the ground and angled back into the exhibit at depth.

Steel mesh enclosures vary from highly visible rigid frame structures to the very light and diaphanous

cable-supported type. Mesh size and type can vary from the 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) diameter x 5.08 cm (2 in.) x

5.08 cm (2 in.) crimped wire used in holding area enclosures to the new 2.4 mm (0.09 in.) diameter 5.1

cm (2 in.) x 5.1 cm (2 in.) woven stainless steel cable mesh. The mesh should extend at least 50 cm (2 ft.

4 in.) under the ground.

The mesh enclosure makes it much more difficult for objects to be thrown either into or out of the

exhibit area. However, orangutans are still adept at manipulating items through the mesh to reach outside

of their enclosure. Mesh may be a more cost-effective option than moats for smaller exhibits, although the

price varies depending upon the type of construction and material. The disadvantages of mesh include

the fact that viewing should be through mesh or glass and the mesh support structure will intrude visually

in naturalistic exhibits. This can be somewhat mitigated by building the mesh enclosure within an existing

tree grove so that living trees form a substantial part of all views. Another form of mesh enclosure is a

fence with a 3.05 m (10 ft.) smooth, solid overhang or vertical extension which animals can’t climb.

Dry moats & smooth walls: Smooth walls 3.66 m (12 ft.) high have been used to contain orangutans. It is

important to ensure that no potential finger holes are present and that the angle at which walls join does

not enable orangutans to brace against one side to scale the seam. This eliminates all but the smoothest

artificial rockwork or requires an overhang at least 3.05 m (10 ft.) wide which animals can’t climb. Smooth

walls tend to be unattractive in naturalistic exhibit areas and it is best to design the facility so that smooth

walls are not visible to the public. The advantage of smooth walls is that little space is needed and that it

is only moderately expensive compared to other alternatives. Disadvantages include the possibility that

the orangutans may improvise a ladder and escape. Wall height should be sufficient to prevent escape by

use of stray objects thrown or fallen into the exhibit or objects otherwise obtained by the orangutans, plus

allow orangutans to have a wide range of enrichment material. As with mesh enclosures, the wall or fence

needs to be extended under the ground or angled back into the exhibit to prevent digging under. The

fence or wall should be extended at least 50 cm (19.7 in.) under the ground.

Dry moats are nearly invisible when perpendicular to view. However, when moats are parallel to view

they may be fully exposed and unattractive. It is possible to use plantings or other features to screen

public views down into moats, or to paint the walls. Allowing orangutans access into the moat may

provide them with opportunities to hide; such access may present enrichment opportunities for the

orangutans, but should be considered in terms of exhibit requirements. Advantages of dry moats include

their near invisibility when well placed. Disadvantages include high relative cost and unsuitability in areas

with high water tables or shallow bedrock. Like smooth walls, they can be compromised by animals using

improvised ladders. Moats take up a lot of space in smaller exhibits (Coe & LaRue, 1997). The suggested

minimum moat depth is 4.5 m (14.8 ft.).

Deep water moats: Orangutans quickly drown if they fall in deep water moats or pools in enclosures.

Infants can also drown in surprisingly shallow water. The incidence of drowning increases when

orangutans are likely to enter the water to avoid aggression, retrieve objects from the enclosure or to gain

objects thrown into the water by the public. Orangutans have been observed wading up to their necks in

both the wild and ex situ environments. Some zoos use electric wires to try to prevent orangutans from

entering deep water moats. As mentioned earlier, this often results in the absence of any play objects for

the animals to prevent them from shorting out the electric wires. Even this is often not effective as

orangutans are usually very skilled at using vegetation or sticks to by-pass or destroy electric wires. Deep

water moats should be avoided as barriers for orangutans (Unknown, 2008).

Towers: Towers can be used to allow the orangutans to traverse areas outside of their primary enclosure.

The towers should be of sufficient height that the orangutans will not risk jumping in all but the most

extreme situations. They should also be designed to prevent the orangutan from descending them. This

can be achieved through the use of electric wires or preferably by the placement of a smooth surface

area of sufficient diameter to prevent the orangutan from gripping the surface. The suggested minimum

drop height for a structure over a non-secured area is 8 m (26 ft.).

Pest control: Pest control should be considered as an important factor during exhibit design. Pests such

as mice and cockroaches seek tight dark areas. Small openings, such as between steel barrier frames

and masonry walls, or penetrations into tubular steel frames, should be sealed. Mounting counters,

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums

cabinets, or shelves away from walls, as well as maintaining open space around furnishings, gives pest

species nowhere to hide. The use of open shelving made of wire mesh also limits hiding places. Drain

covers with tight fitting mesh drain baskets help to prevent the movement of insects and rodents through

the sewer systems. Many enclosure features contribute to the creation of rodent habitat, both indoors and

outdoors. Food availability is probably the most critical factor. Fly and mosquito control programs should

be considered for animals with outdoor access. A routine, integrated pest control program should be part

of standard animal management practices.

All emergency safety procedures must be clearly written,

provided to appropriate paid and unpaid staff, and readily

available for reference in the event of an actual emergency (AZA

Accreditation Standard 11.2.4). Fire alarm systems are

recommended. Alarms should automatically call the Fire

Department and appropriate orangutan care and management

personnel. Plans should include training overnight personnel who

do not regularly access the building in emergency protocols to

ensure orangutan safety, as these people will presumably be first on the scene in the event of a fire

during hours in which animal care staff is not present. All orangutan personnel should be trained to

properly use fire extinguishers and fire extinguishers should be kept and maintained around the area.

A severe weather plan should be developed to address the various weather scenarios that are

specific to the geographic location. Be sure to include plans for addressing power and water needs when

affected by severe weather. A disaster supply kit (see list below) should be assembled and kept in the

building and checked and assessed quarterly. Orangutan holding facility buildings are typically

constructed of thick, concrete walls with few entrances or large windows, making them ideal safe places

during extreme weather events such as hurricanes or tornadoes. High ceilings and existing drains also

increase the possibility that the building is safe during severe weather.

Preparations for hurricanes in orangutan housing should be similar to human hurricane preparation.

All orangutans should be locked inside and preparations made to provide both the humans who stay with

the orangutans, and the orangutans themselves, fresh food and water for several days. Preparations for

severe thunderstorms or tornadoes in orangutan housing should be similar to human preparation for

these events. All orangutans should be locked inside. Care should be taken to move animals into areas

away from large sheets of glass that might shatter during high winds. After the severe weather passes:

• Watch out for fallen power lines and stay out of the damaged area.

• Assess roofs and outdoor spaces for damage and potential escape routes.

•

Listen to a radio for information and instructions.

• Use a flashlight to inspect buildings for damage.

A flood and earthquake response plan should be developed if the institution has the potential for

either of these events. Emergency relocation plans should be included for floods in case high water levels

dictate relocation. Keep a Disaster Supply Kit on hand, along with food and water for all orangutans and

caregivers.

Disaster Supply Kit (www.redcross.org):

• Canned food and can opener

• Bags of dry chow (one week’s supply)

• At least 3 gallons of water per individual per day (humans and orangutans)

• Protective clothing, bedding, or sleeping bags (for both humans and orangutans)

• Battery-powered radio, flashlight, and extra batteries

• Special items for infant, elderly, or disabled individuals

• Written instructions on how to turn off electricity, gas, and water if authorities advise this action (a

professional should turn natural gas service back on)

• Store supplies in a waterproof, easy-to-carry container, such as a plastic tub with handles

• Generator for back-up heat/cooling source

• Sufficient bedding for one week

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.2.4) All emergency procedures must

be written and provided to appropriate

paid and unpaid staff. Appropriate

emergency procedures must be readily

available for reference in the event of an

actual emergency.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

• Cleaning supplies

Staff training for emergencies must be undertaken and

records of such training maintained. Security personnel must be

trained to handle all emergencies in full accordance with the

policies and procedures of the institution and in some cases, may

be in charge of the respective emergency (AZA Accreditation

Standard 11.6.2).

Emergency drills must be conducted at least once annually

for each basic type of emergency to ensure all staff is aware of

emergency procedures and to identify potential problematic areas

that may require adjustment. These drills must be recorded and

results evaluated for compliance with emergency procedures,

efficacy of paid/unpaid staff training, aspects of the emergency

response that are deemed adequate are reinforced, and those

requiring improvement are identified and modified (AZA

Accreditation Standard 11.2.5). AZA-accredited institutions must

have a communication system that can be quickly accessed in

case of an emergency (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.2.6). Such

communication systems can include phone trees or centrally

monitored alert systems. A paid staff member or a committee

must be designated as responsible for ensuring that all required

emergency drills are conducted, recorded, and evaluated in

accordance with AZA accreditation standards (AZA Accreditation

Standard 11.2.0).

AZA-accredited institutions must also ensure that written

protocols define how and when local police or other emergency

agencies are contacted and specify response times to

emergencies (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.2.7). Institutions

holding orangutans should have agreements with their local fire,

police and other emergency personnel regarding dangerous

animal escapes which will include the orangutan. Institutions can

define acceptable parameters of responsibility for the escape. For

example, within the zoo perimeter zoo personnel are responsible,

but outside zoo perimeter fences, the city and/or county

emergency response personnel have authority. Training for

outside personnel and the documentation of this training should

mirror what is provided to zoo staff.

Escape precautions: Many escapes can be attributed to one of

two causes: human error or design flaw. It is impossible to

provide more than a few guidelines for handling escapes, as

each facility and animal is different. Many factors will influence

choices to be made, and there may be several strategies with a

high probability of success. Escapes are best handled through

prevention. Common sense, attention to shifting, locking and

securing enclosures, knowledge of animal behavior, and maintenance needs of facilities will go a long

way in eliminating the risk of an escape. It is strongly advised to always work carefully and attentively and

“Think Safety!” It is important to focus on the task at hand and avoid carelessness, inattention or hurrying

in locking enclosures and shifting animals. Always double-check locks, tugging on them firmly to be sure

they are securely locked. Most orangutans are very aware of locks and will check and test them.

Volunteers, curators, veterinarians, maintenance workers and fellow caregivers should be made aware

that distracting orangutan caregivers from their normal routine can be hazardous to caregiver and animal

safety. Be sure the location of each animal in the group is known before entering an enclosure. Don’t

assume an enclosure is empty because no orangutans are seen. Count off or name each individual in the

group, making positive visual contact with each animal before unlocking the presumed empty area. If

more than one caregiver is working in an area, stay in close contact and make sure that everyone clearly

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.2.7) A written protocol should be

developed involving local police or other

emergency agencies and include

response times to emergencies.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.2.6) The institution must have a

communication system that can be

quickly accessed in case of an

emergency.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.2.5) Live-action emergency drills

(functional exercises) must be conducted

at least once annually for each of the four

basic types of emergency (fire; weather or

other environmental emergency

appropriate to the region; injury to visitor

or paid/unpaid staff; and animal escape).

Four separate drills are required. These

drills must be recorded and results

evaluated for compliance with emergency

procedures, efficacy of paid/unpaid staff

training, aspects of the emergency

response that are deemed adequate are

reinforced, and those requiring

improvement are identified and

modified. (See 11.7.4 for other required

d ill )

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.6.2) Security personnel, whether staff

of the institution, or a provided and/or

contracted service, must be trained to

handle all emergencies in full accordance

with the policies and procedures of the

institution. In some cases, it is recognized

that Security personnel may be in charge

of the respective emergency (i.e. shooting

teams).

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.2.0) A paid staff member or a

committee must be designated as

responsible for ensuring that all required

emergency drills are conducted,

recorded, and evaluated in accordance

with AZA accreditation standards (see

11.2.5, 11.5.2, and 11.7.4).

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understands their assignments. Check on each other often and be sure to avoid potentially disastrous

situations. If Dick is working orangutan night dens and Jane is working the on-exhibit areas, they should

both be present during shifting. If Jane allows the plumbers into the night dens to unstop a drain while

Dick is at lunch, she should stand by until they are finished and the area is secure. Think through actions

to their likely conclusion. Diagramming a complicated shifting routine or writing down or reciting aloud

each step can help anticipate problems. This also aids in the communication process so that each

individual knows clearly what will happen and who will do what. Thinking aloud is a good way for senior

caregivers to teach new caregivers how to anticipate the animals’ responses and to be sure all

alternatives have been considered.

Escape response: In spite of all cautions and anticipation, escapes happen. Each institution should have

its own escape protocol, outlining the appropriate methods of communication, containment, areas of

responsibility and evaluation procedures. Caregivers should be familiar with all aspects of an escape

plan. A yearly drill should be scheduled to practice escape procedures. It is recommended that a variety

of scenarios be modeled during drills, including scenarios that address an institution’s specific animal(s)

and facility. Drills should include animals escape scenarios into secured and non-secured areas as well

as escapes outside of zoo boundaries.

These situations can be modeled by the use of volunteers posing as escaped orangutans. Such

volunteers should be familiar with orangutan behavior to accurately model potential situations in real time.

These “mock orangutans” should be clearly marked as such for the drill. All drills should be recorded and

evaluated to ensure that procedures are being followed, that staff training is effective, and that what is

learned is used to correct and/or improve the emergency procedures.

Communication: Where is the command center (security, curator’s office, etc.)? Is it the same place at

night and on weekends? Who is responsible for staffing the command center?

• How to report escape information and communication during an escape

• Zoo's radio code to indicate an escape

•

What specific information should be broadcast to other respondents

• Familiarity with the chain of command for escape emergencies

• The location of the escape command center including where to report for after-hours responses

•

The procedure for securing staff in safe locations during a dangerous animal escape

• Updated telephone list of essential personnel posted in appropriate locations

• Institutional media policy for animal escapes and emergencies

• Post-escape review process

Containment:

• Follow institutional guidelines for recapture and containment of the escaped animal(s). Typically,

the Scene Commander will determine a recapture strategy to communicate to staff and

emergency responders.

•

Remain calm. Staff actions should minimize stress and danger of injury to the animal, staff and

guests. Remain in a secure location until assistance arrives and never attempt to capture an

escaped orangutan alone.

• Orangutans can be very dangerous animals. Even when a staff member has a good relationship

with an individual animal, the orangutan should always be assumed to be dangerous.

• Keeping the animal in a familiar location or routine may help resolve the situation quickly and

safely.

• If chemical immobilization is necessary, the animal should be darted in a location where it will not

be injured and so it can be safely monitored as anesthesia is taking effect.

Evaluation:

• Immediately following the recovery of an escaped animal, a debriefing meeting should be held

with all staff and responders that were involved in the capture/recovery of the animal. During this

meeting, discussion on how and why the escape happened should take place so that corrective

measures can be taken and improvements can be made to better respond to future situations.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.5.1) Institutions maintaining

venomous animals must have appropriate

antivenin readily available, and its

location must be known by all paid and

unpaid staff working in those areas. An

individual must be responsible for

inventory, disposal/replacement, and

storage of antivenin.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.5.2) All areas housing venomous

animals must be equipped with

appropriate alarm systems, and/or have

protocols and procedures in place which

will notify paid and unpaid staff in the

event of a bite injury, attack, or escape

from the enclosure. These systems

and/or protocols and procedures must be

routinely checked to insure proper

functionality, and periodic drills (at

minimum annually) must be conducted to

insure that appropriate paid and unpaid

staff members are notified.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.5.3) Institutions maintaining

potentially dangerous animals must have

appropriate safety procedures in place to

prevent attacks and injuries by these

animals. Appropriate response

procedures must also be in place to deal

with an attack resulting in an injury. These

procedures must be practiced routinely

per the emergency drill requirements

contained in these standards. Whenever

injuries result from these incidents, a

written account outlining the cause of the

incident, how the injury was handled, and

a description of any resulting changes to

either the safety procedures or the

physical facility must be prepared and

maintained for five years from the date of

the incident.

• Written documentation should be included in the

evaluation process.

AZA-accredited institutions which care for potentially dangerous

animals must have appropriate safety procedures in place to

prevent attacks and injuries by these animals. Animal attack

emergency response procedures must be defined and personnel

must be trained for these protocols (AZA Accreditation Standards

11.5.2 and 11.5.3). As intelligent animals that can be much

stronger than humans, orangutans should be considered

potentially dangerous. It is recommended that caregivers have

only protected contact with orangutans. An exception would be in

the case of an infant who is being temporarily hand-reared prior

to reintroduction to the dam or introduction to a surrogate (see

guidelines Section 8.5).

New orangutan caregivers should be thoroughly trained in

orangutan behavior, as well as learning the preferences and

personalities of each individual orangutan they will be working

with; it should be stressed that it takes time to build a trusting

relationship with an orangutan and each individual person and

orangutan will develop that relationship at his or her own pace.

The progression of the training of new staff depends on both the

orangutans’ and the keepers’ comfort level. If keepers are

uncomfortable being near, feeding, or shifting orangutans it can

create a potentially dangerous situation for the person, and this

factor should always be carefully considered during staff training.

Supervisors who are familiar with the orangutans should always

be available to answer questions and provide guidance.

Animal attack emergency drills should be conducted at least

once annually to ensure that the institution’s staff know their

duties and responsibilities and know how to handle emergencies properly when they occur. All drills need

to be recorded and evaluated to ensure that procedures are being followed, that staff training is effective,

and that what is learned is used to correct and/or improve the emergency procedures. Records of these

drills must be maintained and improvements in the procedures duly noted whenever such are identified

(AZA Accreditation 11.5.3).

If an animal attack occurs and injuries result from the incident,

a written account outlining the cause of the incident, how the

injury was handled, and a description of any resulting changes to

either the safety procedures or the physical facility must be

prepared and maintained for five years from the date of the

incident (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.5.3). Antivenin must be

readily available and all paid and unpaid staff working in areas

containing venomous animals should know the antivenin’s

location (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.5.1).

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Chapter 3. Records

3.1 Definitions

In the zoo and aquarium world, animal records are defined as “data, regardless of physical form or

medium, providing information about individual animals, samples or parts thereof, or groups of animals”.

Most animals in zoo and aquarium collections are recorded as (referred to as) individuals, though some

types of animals are recorded as (referred to as) groups or colonies of animals, particularly with

invertebrates and in aquariums (see Appendix B for definitions and Recordkeeping Guidelines for Group

Accessions). The decision about how to record its animals usually resides with each institution, but in

certain cases, the AZA Animal Program Leader (i.e., TAG Chair, SSP Coordinator, or Studbook Keeper)

may request that animals be recorded in a certain manner, whether as individuals or as groups. The AZA

Orangutan SSP identifies animals at the individual level and requires all participating institutions to do the

same.

3.2 Types of Records

There are many types of records kept for the animals in our

care, including but not limited to, veterinary, husbandry, behavior,

enrichment, nutrition and collection management. These types of

records may be kept as separate records as logs in separate

locations or as part of the collection records and some may be

required by regulation agencies (e.g., primate enrichment

records) or per AZA Accreditation Standards (e.g., emergency

drill records).

Recordkeeping is an important element of animal care and

ensures that information about individual animals or groups of

animals is always available. The institution must show evidence

of having a zoological records management program for

managing animal records, veterinary records, and other relevant

information (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.0). These records

contain important information about an individual animal or group

of animals, including but not limited to taxonomic name,

transaction history, parentage, identifiers, gender, weights,

enclosure locations and moves, and reproductive status (see

Appendix C for Guidelines for Creating and Sharing Animal and

Collection Records). Due to their frequent participation in

research projects and positive reinforcement training programs, it

is recommended that detailed records of orangutan involvement

in these programs be recorded. In relation to positive

reinforcement training, video records of trained behaviors may be

most useful, especially when animals are transferred between

institutions. Additional records of preferred and potentially

hazardous enrichment, dietary restrictions, personality and

temperament are also useful.

A designated staff member must be responsible for

maintaining the animal record-keeping system and for conveying

relevant laws and regulations to the animal care staff (AZA

Accreditation Standard 1.4.6). Recordkeeping must be accurate

and current (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.7). Complete and

up-to-date animal records must be duplicated and stored at a

separate location (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.4) and at least

one set of historical records safely stored and protected (AZA

Accreditation Standard 1.4.5). AZA member institutions must inventory their orangutan population at least

annually and document all orangutan acquisitions, transfers, euthanasias, releases, and reintroductions

(AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.1). All species owned by an AZA institution must be listed on the

inventory, including those animals on loan to and from the institution (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.2).

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.6) A paid staff member must be

designated as being responsible for the

institution's animal record-keeping

system. That person must be charged

with establishing and maintaining the

institution's animal records, as well as

with keeping all paid and unpaid animal

care staff members apprised of relevant

laws and regulations regarding the

institution's animals.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.7) Animal records must be kept

current.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.4) Animal records, whether in

electronic or paper form, must be

duplicated and stored in a separate

location. Animal records are defined as

data, regardless of physical form or

medium, providing information about

individual animals, or samples or parts

thereof, or groups of animals.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.5) At least one set of the institution’s

historical animal and veterinary records

must be stored and protected. Those

records should include permits, titles,

declaration forms, and other pertinent

information.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.0) The institution must show

evidence of having a zoological records

management program for managing

animal records, veterinary records, and

other relevant information.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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All AZA-accredited institutions must abide by the AZA Acquisition,

Transfer and Transition Policy (Appendix D) and the long-term

welfare of animals should be considered in all acquisition,

transfer, and transition decisions.

3.3 Permit Considerations

The orangutan is regulated by federal and/or state

governments. Therefore, possession and/or specific activities

involving these species usually require a permit(s) issued by the

regulating agency, granting permission for possession and/or the

specific activities. Depending on the agency involved, the

application and approval process may take a few days to many months. These permits must be received

by the applicant before the proposed possession or activity can occur. At the federal level, the USDA

oversees the regulation of zoos under the Animal Welfare Act. Individual states also maintain their own

regulatory processes, details of which are beyond the scope of this manual. Consideration of individual

state permitting is especially important when transporting animals across state lines. For more information

on state permitting processes, have the zoo registrar, or those in charge of recordkeeping for your

institution, contact state officials.

3.4 Identification

Ensuring that orangutans are identifiable through various

means increases the ability to care for individuals more

effectively. All animals held at AZA facilities must be individually

identifiable whenever practical, and have corresponding

identification (ID) numbers. For animals maintained in colonies or

groups, or other animals not considered readily identifiable,

institutions must have a procedure for identification of and

recording information about these groups or colonies. (AZA

Accreditation Standard 1.4.3). These IDs should be included in

specimen, collection and/or transaction records and veterinary records. Types of identifiers include:

Physical identifier: These include, but are not limited to, ear and/or wing tags, leg bands, tattoos,

microchips/transponder and RFID devices, elastomers, ear and/or shell notches and toe clips. Permanent

physical identifiers are often required when a species is regulated by a government agency and to

distinguish separate animals in studbooks.

Intangible identifiers (called ‘logical identifiers’ in the Zoological Information Management System [ZIMS]):

These include, but are not limited to, institutional accession number, house name, public name, studbook

number, and ZIMS Global Accession Number.

The International Studbook for orangutans uses three primary identifiers: (a) Studbook number:

assigned by the Studbook Keeper; (b) local ID number assigned by the holding institution; and (c) House

name. Only the first of these three is assured to be consistent through the lifetime of the orangutans and

as such, is the most reliable method of identification.

Common methods of individual identification include radio frequency identification (RFID) implants

(aka "microchips") with unique identification numbers and tattoos. Permanent physical features, scars,

and other unique external characteristics may also aid in identification of individual orangutans. Like many

primates, orangutans can also be identified by facial features. The use of physical identification features

can begin immediately after birth and should be regularly updated as the individual ages. The use of

RFID implants or tattoos should be implemented at the discretion of the overseeing veterinarian but are

generally implemented before the individual’s first birthday.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.2) All species owned by the

institution must be listed on the inventory,

including those animals on loan to and

from the institution.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.3) Animals must be identifiable,

whenever practical, and have

corresponding ID numbers. For animals

maintained in colonies/groups or other

animals not considered readily

identifiable, the institution must provide a

statement explaining how record keeping

is maintained.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.4.1) An animal inventory must be

compiled at least once a year and include

data regarding acquisition, transfer,

euthanasia, release, and reintroduction.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Chapter 4. Transport

4.1 Preparations

Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that

adheres to all laws, is safe, and minimizes risk to the animal(s),

employees, and general public (AZA Accreditation Standard

1.5.11). All temporary, seasonal, and traveling live animal exhibits

must meet the same accreditation standards as the institution’s

permanent resident animals, with foremost attention to animal

welfare considerations (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.10). Safe

animal transport requires the use of appropriate conveyance and

equipment that is in good working order. Include copies of

appropriate permits and authorizations in transport

documentation. If the animal is not owned by the shipping

institution, permission is to be obtained from the owner well in

advance of the move.

Crate size and design: Determining the size and design of the

shipping crate is a critical part of assuring a safe and successful

transfer of the animal. The crate’s inside dimensions should allow

the animal to turn around and sit upright without its head touching

the crate ceiling. Remember to take into account the depth of any bedding that may be included in the

crate with the animal. There are governmental and transport-company regulations on the types of

bedding that can be used during shipment; this is an especially important consideration in international

shipments. Types of wood used in crate construction are also sometimes included in regulations. The

crate should be constructed of materials that are strong enough to contain the specific animal to be

shipped, taking into account the gender, age and size of the orangutan. Orangutans can be skilled

dismantlers, so aluminum, heavy-grade plywood and steel can all be used in various combinations to

construct a strong, safe crate. All nuts and bolts on the crates should be checked to ensure they are tight

and will not come loose during the transport. The design should allow for ease and safety in handling the

crate. It is very important that the size and weight restrictions for the intended method of transport be

taken into account (USDA Subpart D Sections 3.87-3.92; www.usda.gov

) for specific requirements for

crate construction and transit activity. Also, refer to the latest edition of the International Animal Transport

Associations Live Animal Regulations www.IATA.org) for the crate design approved for air transport for

great apes.

Other factors to be considered when determining crate size include: corner turning space into the

holding enclosures, dimensions of service corridors and doors, specifications of all truck trays, truckload

ratings, and airplane cargo door dimensions. It is important to check with the receiving institution to

ensure the shipping crate can fit into their quarantine area for unloading. The method in which the crate

door opens and closes needs to be taken into consideration to ensure a smooth unloading process.

When measuring an enclosure door to determine if a crate can fit through the door, make sure to include

the width of the crate, including any side/carrying handles to ensure a proper fit.

The equipment should provide for the adequate containment, life support, comfort, temperature

control, food/water, and safety of the animal(s). Items to bring may include:

• 2 gallons of water per orangutan per 24

hour period

• Treats that will fit through bars/mesh of

crate

• Produce (check government and

transport regulations on permissible

produce)

• Biscuits that will fit through bars/mesh of

crate

• Juice

• Blankets

• Medications and medications sheet

• Cups

• Pill crusher and pill splitter

• Emergency kit

• Vet box

• Soap/hand sanitizer

• Personal protective equipment (latex

gloves, masks, Tyvek suit)

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.11) Animal transportation must be

conducted in a manner that is safe, well-

planned and coordinated, and minimizes

risk to the animal(s), employees, and

general public. All applicable laws and/or

regulations must be adhered to.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.10) Temporary, seasonal and

traveling live animal exhibits, programs,

or presentations (regardless of ownership

or contractual arrangements) must be

maintained at the same level of care as

the institution’s permanent resident

animals, with foremost attention to animal

welfare considerations, both onsite and at

the location where the animals are

permanently housed.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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• Baby monitor

• Thermometer to measure air

temperature

• USDA transfer form

• Health certificate

• Health records

• State import permit

• Credit card/cash

• Road atlas

• Important phone numbers

• Vehicle registration and insurance card

• Cell phone car charger

• Extra vehicle keys

• Lug wrench and jack

• Spare tires for vehicle (and trailer if

trailer used)

• Jumper cables

• Oil and coolant

• Ramp for onloading and offloading crate

if necessary

• Emergency heating/cooling equipment

• Fire extinguisher

Safe transport also requires the assignment of an adequate number of appropriately trained

personnel (by institution or contractor) who are equipped and prepared to handle contingencies and/or

emergencies that may occur in the course of transport. Planning and coordination for animal transport

requires good communication among all affected parties, plans for a variety of emergencies and

contingencies that may arise, and timely execution of the transport. At no time should the animal(s) or

people be subjected to unnecessary risk or danger.

Staff involvement: Having someone familiar with the animal accompany the transfer can assure a

smoother transition for the animal and caregivers. It is strongly recommended that keeper staff from the

receiving institution work with the orangutan at its home institution prior to shipping. This allows the

animal to meet its new caregivers and allows the new caregiver to work with and observe the animal

during its normal daily routine. Both the sending and receiving institutions’ caregivers should accompany

the animal during shipment. Many orangutans suffer depression (sometimes extreme) after being moved

to a new facility. It is recommended that a familiar caregiver stay at the new facility with the orangutan

until the animal is eating and showing signs of adjustment to the new routine.

The choice to transport an animal using zoo staff may be the best one for relatively short distances.

Remember that driving an orangutan across country is not as easy as it sounds. Plan the best route and

then have alternative routes in case of unexpected road closures, severe weather or other changes. Have

a plan for dealing with any problems encountered on the road. For long road trips, make plans for backup

vehicles in case of a breakdown in the primary transport vehicle. It is recommended that arrangements

are made for in-transit veterinary emergencies. This can be done by contacting AZA institutions that are

along the transport route to enlist an experienced veterinarian to be on call if the need arises. Ensure that

adequate staff accompanies the shipment. For the sake of the orangutan caregiver and animal safety, a

minimum of two people should make the trip, although it is probably best to have three. Refer to the

USDA regulations for transport of non-human primates for additional information (AWR, 2005).

4.2 Protocols

Transport protocols should be well defined and clear to all animal care staff. A pre-shipment

veterinary evaluation should be done well in advance of shipment. This evaluation involves examining all

the records and history of the animal. These may include: medical, animal management, APES (Ape

Profile and Evaluation System), positive reinforcement training, and other records. A pre-shipment

physical examination is also recommended; see the Veterinary Chapter for more information.

1. Determine transport guidelines

a. The USA has adopted International Air Transport Association (IATA) Live Animal

Regulations. Some airlines have specific nonhuman primate requirements or restrictions.

i. Animals should be crated for shipment to the receiving institution.

ii. Animals should be trained for voluntary crating whenever possible.

iii. Familiar zoo staff should accompany an ape in transit whenever possible.

iv. Certificate of Veterinary Inspection, medical records, and appropriate permits

should accompany an ape in transit.

v. Animals should be shipped in a climate-controlled manner, with temperatures

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

optimally held between 15–29 °C (60–85 °F).

vi. A contingency plan for transit-associated problems should be in place prior to the

shipment.

2. Develop a shipment transition plan

a. This plan can help the animal being shipped adjust to changes in its environment, daily

routine, diet, caregivers and future social group. Some orangutans adjust well to a new

location and animal management routine with little apparent stress. Other individuals can

experience varying levels of stress and/or depression ranging from mild to severe. There

are cases of adolescent and sub-adult orangutans who have suffered severe post-

shipment stress and/or depression. In a few of the cases, the animals have lost

significant amounts of weight, become reclusive, and are non-interactive with their

caregivers or surroundings. Here are some recommended steps in developing a

shipment transition plan:

i. Exchange animal records with the receiving institution. This will allow caregivers

and animal managers the opportunity to review the animal’s history. Records

may include: ARKS, MedARKS, Tracks, APES, diet, enrichment, and training

records. A records review will help determine if any past or present behavioral or

medical issues will need to be addressed prior to or after shipment. This will also

help in deciding where to place the newcomer. All involved parties should be in

regular communication to discuss the upcoming shipment and animal to be

transported.

ii. Determine the shipping timeline. This will help in the development of a transition

plan. The more time to prepare the animal for transition the better.

iii. Identify a shipping crate if the transition plan includes crate-training the

orangutan prior to shipment. This is highly recommended if the sending facility

can accommodate this type of training. Voluntary crating of an orangutan is the

least stressful method.

iv. Develop a separation plan. It is recommended that the animal being shipped be

acclimated to increasing time lengths of voluntary separation from its present

social group. This type of training helps the animal being shipped adjust to being

alone while at its home institution. It also helps to desensitize the remaining

animals in the social group who are not being shipped, to separate for increasing

periods of time in a non-stressful situation. Separation time lengths should start

very small and increase to a point at which the animal is separated from its social

group for several days prior to shipment. A concerted effort to keep the

experience positive for the animals involved and in their regular routine is a goal.

v. Have the nutritionist review the animal’s present and future diet to determine

what (if any) adjustments need to be made.

vi. Determine how birth control will be altered or stay the same after the transfer.

vii. Learn as much as possible in advance of the shipment about the new facility and

its orangutan management routine in order to help the transition of the animal

being shipped. Request copies of the reeving facility’s orangutans’ APES

profiles.

3. Determine the size and design of the shipping crate

a. This information is presented in the second paragraph of Section 4.1.

4. Permits

a. The required permits will depend on the animal’s destination and method of

transportation. In general, a health certificate will be needed for transport in the United

States. International shipments and some states require additional permits and

documentation.

5. Locate a CDC-registered import quarantine facility for international imports

a. Nonhuman primates entering the US from foreign countries may need to go through

quarantine at a CDC-registered facility.

b. Note that some changes to the requirements in 2014 may minimize some of the

requirement for zoo-to-zoo imports; contact the CDC directly for up-to-date

requirements.

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums

6. Plan travel arrangements as early as possible

a. Consider difference in climate between the two locations and try to plan for a time when

weather is not too different.

b. Decide whether the animal will be shipped by plane or by using an institutional or rented

vehicle. Decide who will be accompanying the animal (at least 2 people). It is best to

choose people the orangutan is comfortable with. If needed, make arrangements with an

animal transporter. Choose the safest and least stressful route to reach the receiving

institution. Ensure that the orangutan is never exposed to dramatic shifts in weather. If

flying, arrange for the keeper to have access to the tarmac to supervise animal handling

during transport, if possible, in accordance with airline and airport security regulations. It

is recommended that security passes be arranged well in advance with the cargo

manager for both the outgoing airport and also any stopovers. Establish veterinarian

contacts in stopover locations or along the driving route for ground transport.

c. If an animal transporter is used, confirm that they have experience with orangutans and

ask for references from prior orangutan transports they have done. Pre-arrange for any

equipment or special requests for the transport.

d. Develop contingency plans for any potential problems while on the road, including vehicle

and/or animal-related issues. Arrange with zoos along the transport route for emergency

help if needed and give list of contacts to the transporter.

7. Transfer animal to crate and transport to new facility

a. The best method is to move an animal into a crate using positive reinforcement training,

although sedation also works. If using crate training, start the training process well in

advance of the actual shipment. Once the animal is trained, actual “mock transports”

could be staged prior to the actual shipment.

b. If the animal is sedated, great care should be taken in placing the animal in the crate so

that the airway is not blocked. Maintain quick access to the animal until it starts to

respond and can hold itself in an acceptable position. Do not put food or water into the

crate until the animal is fully alert. The orangutan should be fully alert before it leaves the

facility.

c. All documentation should be sent well in advance of the shipment except for the health

certificate and actual transport documents. Remember to bring a hard copy of all

pertinent information about the animal to the receiving facility including: medical history,

APES form, the American Association of Zookeepers Animal Data Transfer form,

Enrichment Data Transfer Form, Training Data Transfer Form, and any institutional

records pertaining to the individual orangutan. If the animal is involved in a behavioral

modification program, a videotape of the animal’s training sessions will help provide a

smooth transition to the new trainer(s).

8. Provide follow-up information and support to the new facility

a. It is worth designating specific staff at each institution to help facilitate communication

regarding the orangutan post-shipment. It should be specified how frequent the updates

will be and what both institutions expect for communication. After the animal has been

shipped, fill out the AZA SSP Animal Transfer Survey and return it to the AZA Orangutan

Husbandry Advisor.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Chapter 5. Social Environment

5.1 Group Structure and Size

Careful consideration should be given to ensure that animal group structures and sizes meet the

social, physical, and psychological well-being of those animals and facilitate species-appropriate

behaviors. Orangutans can be housed in a variety of ways: mixed age/sex groups, restricted-access

groups, and solitary individuals are all potential options, depending upon individuals and circumstances.

Adult male orangutans should not be housed together. Although orangutans can be housed alone, it is

not recommended except under unusual circumstances. Adult males and adult females may be housed

through the use of a creep door arrangement, allowing the female to choose her accessibility to the male.

Individual institutions should evaluate available holding and exhibit spaces as well as the temperament

and social experience of their animals when forming groups. Visual barriers and access to several holding

enclosures or exhibits are an important consideration for larger social groups. Group structure should be

evaluated frequently, especially when housing juvenile animals with adults, as animals’ temperaments

may change with the onset of sexual maturity, and adult-male tolerance of maturing males can change

very suddenly.

When individuals need to be isolated from the group, every attempt should be made to retain as

much visual, olfactory, and auditory contact as possible, while restricting physical contact. This can be

accomplished through the use of mesh or Lexan

shift doors. Mirrors on the outside of the enclosure can

be used to maintain visual contact. More information on this topic is discussed in Chapter 2.1 as “Social

Considerations”.

5.2 Influence of Others and Conspecifics

Animals cared for by AZA-accredited institutions are often found residing with conspecifics, but may

also be found residing with animals of other species. Mixed species exhibits are valued for conserving

space, providing positive and challenging stimuli to animals and for the education and entertainment

aspect of a zoo’s mission. The decision to house different species together should take into account the

inherent problems associated with any animal introduction and management scheme but should include

additional factors unique to mixed-species exhibitry. Some of the issues to be addressed when

considering mixed-species exhibits include: aggression between the two species; multi-species

competition for resources such as food, space, etc.; and the potential for zoonotic disease transmission,

especially from high risk species such as macaques. In addition, psychological distress as the result of a

mixed species situation should be considered as a potential health risk. Management of each individual

species should be considered independently of the other especially with regard to cases where the mixed

exhibit is not successful. Alternative plans for housing, feeding, etc., should be made prior to beginning

the mixed species program.

Orangutans have been housed successfully with siamangs, various gibbon species, crab-eating

macaques, and Asian small-clawed otters. Exhibits with water moats have had fish, bullfrogs, and various

turtle species in them with no reports of interaction or aggression by the orangutans, even when the

turtles basked on land. One report cites various Old World monkeys opportunistically and briefly getting

into an orangutan exhibit with no extraordinary outcome, although zoo managers did not plan these visits.

Feral animals such as domestic cats and rabbits have also been found living in orangutan exhibits.

Management considerations: Housing multiple species in an exhibit presents many management

challenges. The species’ natural histories, species-specific requirements, and preventing resource

competition are priorities in planning a program. The following should be regarded as a basic but not

exhaustive list of facility design and program considerations:

• Sufficient space in the night quarters for each species and each individual as well as appropriate

physical, visual, or auditory separation where needed.

• Exhibit should be large enough to meet the minimum standards for each species plus added

square footage for the addition of extra animals.

• Exhibit should be properly furnished to supply species-specific needs for each species without

competition for furniture or space made by conspecifics.

• A plan for feeding and watering to eliminate food competition or dominance over feeding/watering

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sites.

• Safety features in any shared living space which help protect the smaller or less dominant

animals and allow them to retreat from harassment or aggressive behavior from others.

• The environmental enrichment program used for orangutans should be re-evaluated to consider

the conspecifics to be housed in the exhibit. The safety and species-appropriate nature of

enrichment items used in the program should ensure that the goals of enrichment are met for all

of the species, in a safe and healthy manner.

• As arboreal animals, orangutans should not have to compete for arboreal living space with

another arboreal species such as gibbons. The exhibit area should be large enough and

sufficiently furnished such that all animals are comfortable residing in their arboreal living areas.

Providing arboreal travel pathways with differing load-bearing capabilities is one way to exclude

heavier animals from certain areas.

• Be sure to recognize the individual personalities of the orangutans and the other animals to be

housed with them. Individual personalities can mean the difference between success and failure.

A dominant personality within the group can affect the dynamics in both species.

5.3 Introductions and Reintroductions

Managed care for and reproduction of animals housed in AZA-accredited institutions are dynamic

processes. Animals born in or moved between and within institutions require introduction and sometimes

reintroductions to other animals. It is important that all introductions are conducted in a manner that is

safe for all animals and humans involved.

Typically, there is a high rate of success when conducting orangutan introductions. The most

challenging introductions involve infants or adult animals. Juvenile introductions have the highest success

rate. Injuries commonly inflicted during introductions are bite wounds to hands, arms, feet and head, and

pulled hair or fingernails. Most injuries are considered minor and few individuals require invasive wound

care. Aggressive encounters have been recorded between males and females although well-planned

male-to-female introductions are largely uneventful. The number of minor injuries that have been reported

to occur during successful as well as unsuccessful introductions indicates that differences between

individuals can be resolved. If initial introductions are not successful, all options should be reviewed

before further attempts are abandoned. A different introduction location or combination of animals may be

all that is required.

It should be emphasized that no two orangutans will react in the same way to every situation.

Information regarding the personality and social experience of all individuals is essential prior to

formulating introduction protocols. Introductions may take longer than anticipated and continual

monitoring of the animals is essential. For case study information describing various age/sex

combinations of introductions, see the “Introductions” chapter of the Orangutan Husbandry Manual

(

http://www.czs.org/Centers-of-Excellence/Center-for-Animal-Welfare/Animal-Husbandry/Orangutan-

Husbandry-Manual).

Developing introduction plans: The first step in any introduction should be the development of an

animal management plan. Plans should be flexible and specific to the individual animals involved. APES

profiles and other records containing information on the social history of the animals involved should be

reviewed. Meetings held prior to the introduction should include discussions on alternative plans of action,

potential facility modifications, staff involvement and intervention equipment needed. Discussions with

less experienced staff are very important in order to give them an idea of what they might see and hear

during the introduction. They should follow the instructions of a more experienced staff member.

Inexperienced staff should not be responsible for monitoring introductions without experienced backup.

Location and equipment: Facility design may limit the location for an introduction. It is important to

conduct a facility review prior to the introduction to determine if any modifications are needed. A variety of

locations can be used for an introduction including holding and exhibit enclosures. Single enclosures

should be avoided.

Using as much enclosure space as possible is important when planning an introduction. Enclosures

that have “dead ends” should be avoided. Animals should be provided with every opportunity to escape

from each other. Restricted access enclosures (or “creeped” enclosures) should be used if your facility

has them. Remember that adult orangutans can fit through a very small opening. It is highly advisable to

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test the animal’s ability to pass through a “creeped” door prior to the introduction. When choosing an

introduction location, consider staff accessibility to the animals in case an intervention is necessary. Keep

in mind that an unnecessary intervention can prolong or inhibit the introduction process.

All animals involved should be given ample time to become familiar independently with any new

enclosure that will be used for the introduction. This is especially important if an introduction will occur in

an area that contains potential hazards such as a dry or water-filled moat. Special care should be taken

when introducing one or more unflanged (sub-adult) males as this is a period of hormonal fluctuation.

Groups containing individuals of this developmental stage should be monitored closely for indications of

increased aggression or submissiveness by any individual. Juvenile introductions (which are uncommon)

warrant a more controlled situation. They may need a longer adjustment period when being introduced to

a new enclosure in order to become familiar with new surroundings prior to the introduction. Deep

bedding and the use of a restricted access or “creep” door is highly recommended for this type of

introduction. Juveniles should always have the choice to get away from the other animals to which they

are being introduced.

Good visual access and the ability to maximize control are important factors for staff when planning

an introduction. Animal control equipment that can be available during the introduction includes: water

hoses, high-pressure hoses, carbon dioxide fire extinguishers and/or immobilization equipment. This type

of equipment should by readily available but not visible to the animals. It is not uncommon for animals to

be stressed when seeing this type of equipment.

The use of heavy bedding is strongly encouraged during an introduction; it can help minimize fall-

related injuries and provide foraging opportunities. At least 10 cm (4 in.) of hay, wood wool or other

substrate should be used to ensure adequate padding of the enclosure floor. Deep bedding is critical

when doing introductions involving infants.

Food items offered during an introduction should be plentiful

enough to avoid competition between individuals. Small forage items can promote species-typical

behavior while serving as a distraction. Behavioral enrichment should be provided as well. Refer to this

manual’s section on enrichment for additional ideas. The use of browse is highly recommended.

Progression of the introduction: Group composition including size, sex, and age of the animals

involved, animal personalities, APES and social history should all be evaluated. If the introduction is to

occur in phases, the behavior of all animals involved during the prior phases of the introduction should be

evaluated.

Auditory, visual, and olfactory contact is the first step in an introduction. Mirrors can be used to

facilitate this if the facility design does not allow for complete visual access. Mirrors can angle between

individual enclosures. Limited tactile contact may follow. Fine mesh screens or grates between adjacent

enclosures can be used. These can replace solid doors or be added to enclosure barriers that would

otherwise allow full tactile contact. A period of limited tactile contact will enable staff to better evaluate

how individuals may react when in full contact. Consideration should be given to the possibility of animals

biting each other when this type of contact is allowed.

If your facility has the ability to increase tactile contact opportunities, this should be the next step.

During this phase, carefully monitor all individual animal responses to their new peers. Any aggressive

behavior should be evaluated prior to the full-contact phase of the introduction. Affiliative behavior can be

reinforced by caregivers where appropriate.

Full contact is the final phase of the introduction process. The animals should be allowed sufficient

time to integrate into their new social group. The adjustment period to a new social situation may be quick

or could take an extended period of time. It is important to let the behavior of the animals involved dictate

the pace of the adjustment period.

Orangutan introductions are highly variable. Aggression during introductions may occur and is not

unusual. Some behaviors commonly seen during introductions include: chasing, hair pulling, slapping,

wrestling, biting of toes and fingers, and ano-genital inspection. It is common to see sexual behavior and

forced copulations when introducing an adult pair. Careful observations are recommended to identify

encounters that could escalate and result in serious injury. Unnecessary separations should be avoided

as frequent separations and subsequent reintroductions can be a factor in increasing aggression between

individuals. Animals should be allowed the time and opportunity necessary to work out any differences in

order to develop compatibility. Emphasis should be placed on positive interactions between individuals

before moving on to the next introduction phase.

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When doing any introduction, it is important for staff involved in the process to discuss how each

observer involved perceived the animals’ interactions at each stage of the process. This will help in

planning the next step of the introduction. Staff monitoring and assessment is critical throughout the entire

introductory process.

Depending on the facility’s animal management routine, it may be desirable to separate individuals at

certain times. Some individuals do not tolerate being housed together continually. Continual housing or

restricted access housing (creep method) should be considered for a breeding pair to allow unrestricted

access during the ovulation period.

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Chapter 6. Nutrition

6.1 Nutritional Requirements

A formal nutrition program is required to meet the nutritional

and behavioral needs of all orangutan (AZA Accreditation

Standard 2.6.2). Diets should be developed using the

recommendations of nutritionists, the AZA Nutrition Scientific

Advisory Group (NAG) feeding guidelines:

(http://www.aza.org/nutrition-advisory-group/

), and veterinarians

as well as AZA Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), and Species

Survival Plan

(SSP) Programs. Diet formulation criteria should

address the animal’s nutritional needs, feeding ecology, as well as individual and natural histories to

ensure that species-specific feeding patterns and behaviors are stimulated.

Wild orangutans experience a dramatic flux in food availability due to mast synchronized fruiting of

trees in Southeast Asia. Mast fruiting is rare, occurring only once every 2 to 10 years (Ashton et al.,

1988). During the lower periods of fruit production, orangutans are forced to rely on other, less energy-

dense foods. This phenomenon has led researchers to hypothesize that orangutans evolved to take

advantage of mast fruiting by storing the excess calories as fat in order to partially rely on this energy

when fruits are not available (MacKinnon, 1974a; Wheatley, 1982, 1987; Leighton, 1993; Knott, 1998a,

1999). Biomarkers from field-collected urine confirmed that wild orangutans deposit fat during high-fruit

periods and metabolize fat when fruits are scarce (Vogel et al., in preparation). Recent studies have used

nutritional geometry to analyze the responses of wild orangutans in Borneo to variation in the

macronutrient composition of natural foods (Vogel et al., in preparation). Results showed that orangutans

maintain their daily intake of protein within narrow limits, but allow non-protein energy intake to vary with

variation in the macronutrient composition of available foods. Consequently, during periods of high fruit

availability (masting periods) the orangutans eat similar amounts of protein but considerably higher

amounts of non-protein energy and hence of energy overall, compared to outside of masting periods

when high-protein foods such as leaves and cambium form the major portion of the diet.

Orangutans are often classified as frugivores, due to their preference for fruits when they are

available; however, based on their digestive system physiology, Stevens & Hume (1995) classified them

as arboreal folivores. Foods selected by wild orangutans have been identified by various researchers and

include fruit, leaves, non-leafy vegetation, inner bark, flowers and insects (Bastian et al., 2010; Galdikas,

1988; Hamilton & Galdikas, 1994; Knott, 1998a; Knott, 1999; Leighton, 1993; MacKinnon, 1974a;

Rodman, 1977). There are several reports of carnivorous activity by orangutans, including the

consumption of a gibbon (Sugardjito & Nurhuda, 1981), slow lorises (Utami & van Hooff, 1997), and a rat

(Knott, 1998b).

While many researchers have identified the types of foods consumed by free-ranging orangutans,

very few have quantified the nutritional composition of those items. Hamilton and Galdikas (1994), Heller

et al. (2002), and Knott (1998a, 1999) are among the only researchers that have analyzed free-ranging

orangutan foods for protein, fat, fiber, and dry matter. The most extensive analytical research on

orangutan foods has been by Knott (1998a, 1999). One of her studies focused on food availability and its

effect on orangutan nutrition, energy balance, and reproduction. For this study, a complete year of

Bornean orangutan food consumption was documented between November 1994 and December 1995 in

Gunung Palung National Park in Indonesia. During this time period a mast fruiting event occurred, which

enabled Knott to include numerous fruits in her analyses.

Knott analyzed 93 orangutan food items for structural fiber (neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent

fiber, and lignin), crude protein, ash (total mineral composite), and lipids (fat). Overall, there was a wide

range in nutrient composition both between and within food categories. The table below (Table 4) is a

composite of information of all the food items analyzed. Note the high upper range of neutral detergent

fiber concentrations identified for most food items.

Table 4. Nutrient ranges in orangutan foods (% on dry matter basis; Knott, 1999)

Item

Neutral Detergent Fiber

Crude Protein

Fat

Seeds (n=39)

9–84

2–19

0–52

Pulp (n=19)

9–77

5–13

0–18

Leaves (n=8)

21–72

12–19

1–2

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.6.2) The institution must follow a

written nutrition program that meets the

behavioral and nutritional needs of all

species, individuals, and colonies/groups

in the institution. Animal diets must be of

a quality and quantity suitable for each

animal’s nutritional and psychological

needs.

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Item

Neutral Detergent Fiber

Crude Protein

Fat

Bark (n=10)

53–73

6–17

0–8

Flowers (n=3)

46–57

10–13

2–3

Whole Fruits (n=4)

50–65

4–12

0–4

Pith (n=4)

51–82

3–7

0–2

Knott approximated individual orangutan consumption using the time an individual spent eating and

their average feeding rate. Based on those intake calculations, neutral detergent fiber comprised 24.1

–

60.8% of the consumed diet. During the non-fruiting period (June to December), the fiber concentrations

of the diet were at their highest because orangutans relied on leaves and bark as main food items, both of

which are extremely high in structural fiber. While concentrations of fiber changed in the diet, the overall,

absolute quantity of fiber consumed did not vary significantly throughout the year. While the percentage of

fiber consumed varied throughout the year, the percentage of protein remained relatively consistent,

comprising 5.3

–16.0% of the diet. The lipid (fat) concentration of the diet ranged between 7.2–16.8% with

the higher percentages being attributed to the consumption of Neesia seeds, which contain 40% fat.

The target nutrient levels estimated for zoo orangutans were derived from the Nutrient Requirements

of Nonhuman Primates (2003). This document was compiled by an expert panel on primate nutrition and

includes data from numerous nonhuman primate nutrition research projects. The summarized estimated

nutrient requirements for orangutans are listed in Table 5.

Table 5. Proposed nutrient guidelines for orangutans on a dry matter basis*

Nutrient Proposed Nutrient Guidelines

Crude Protein, %

15–22

Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF), %

10–30

Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF), %

5–15

Ca, %

0.8

P, %

0.6

Mg, %

0.08

K, %

0.4

Na, %

0.2

Cl, %

0.2

Fe, mg/kg (or ppm)

100

Cu, mg/kg

Mn, mg/kg

Zn, mg/kg

100

I, mg/kg

0.35

Se, mg/kg

0.3

Vitamin A, IU/kg

8,000

Vitamin D

, IU/kg

2,500

Vitamin E, mg/kg

100

Vitamin K, mg/kg

0.5

Thiamin (B

), mg/kg

3.0

Riboflavin (B

), mg/kg

4.0

Pantothenic acid, mg/kg

12.0

Niacin, mg/kg

25.0

Vitamin B

, mg/kg

4.0

Biotin, mg/kg

0.2

Folacin, mg/kg

4.0

Vitamin B12, mg/kg

0.03

Vitamin C, mg/kg

200

Choline, mg/kg

750

*Target values based on NRC (2003)

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Mimicking the nutritional composition of the high fiber, low sugar diet of free-ranging orangutans will

promote healthier orangutans. Feeding orangutans animal products, including dairy and eggs, is not

recommended as they may promote obesity and increase cholesterol concentrations. The only exception

to this would be when hand-raising orangutan infants. At those times human infant formulas

supplemented with omega fatty acids are recommend for use over cow’s milk.

In addition to estimating nutrient consumption, Knott estimated caloric intake and expenditure. During

mast fruiting periods, caloric intake was approximated to be 8,422 kcal/day for males and 7,404 kcal/day

for females, which is greater than during non-masting periods in which males consumed an estimated

3,825 kcal/day and females consumed 1,793 kcal/day (Knott, 1998a). Knott estimated energy

expenditures for orangutans during fruit-rich periods to be approximately 3,400 kcal/day for males and

1,900 kcal/day for females (without maternal costs), and 2,400 kcal/day for females with maternal costs

using food consumption rates and caloric content of the foods eaten.

Metabolizable energy (ME) needs of the orangutan can be estimated using the equation: ME(kcal) =

100 x BW

0.75

where BW is body weight in kilograms (King, 1978). This equation has been used to

formulate diets for apes at several zoos and appears quite accurate for weight maintenance in

orangutans. For example, an adult female weighing 45 kg (99 lbs.) would require approximately 1,737

kcal per day for maintenance. Ideally, orangutans should be weighed regularly to determine their

individual requirements as they may require more or less than the average orangutan to maintain body

condition.

The second piece of information to consider when formulating diets for animals, especially for those

whose dietary needs are not well established, is the anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract. The distinctive

feature of an orangutan’s digestive tract is the voluminous and lengthy large intestine. Gorillas, also

known for their high fiber diets, have a similar digestive tract; however, not all apes share this trait. The

large intestine of the chimpanzee is smaller in volume and shorter in length than that of the orangutan.

The proportionate length and volume of orangutans’ large intestines reflect their ability to ferment

significant quantities of fiber from which they are able to acquire energy (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Gastrointestinal tracts of large hindgut-fermenting herbivores—chimpanzee, orangutan (Stevens & Hume, 1995) and pony

(Stevens, 1977)—comparing length and volume of the large intestine, an indication of ability for fiber fermentation.

Fiber is a generic term used to describe a broad range of plant compounds, including hemicellulose,

cellulose, lignin, gum, and pectin. Mammals do not produce the digestive enzymes necessary to degrade

fiber in plants, yet herbivores have evolved to rely on plants as their primary food source. To overcome

this inability, herbivores, and to a lesser degree omnivores and carnivores, have developed a symbiotic

relationship with bacteria. In non-ruminant animals, including the orangutan, these bacteria reside mainly

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in the large intestine. Certain species of bacteria rely specifically on fiber for survival, while other bacterial

species survive on undigested protein or starch particles that reach the large intestine. The fiber-

degrading (fibrolytic) bacteria manufacture and secrete the specific enzymes necessary to break certain

types of fiber strands into individual sugar components through a process known as fermentation. Not all

types of fiber can be fermented by bacteria. The bacteria use the sugars to meet their own energy needs

and excrete an end-product known as volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The herbivore absorbs the VFAs, using

them for energy. The research done by Hamilton and Galdikas (1994) and Knott (1998a, 1999) revealed

that foods selected by orangutans are relatively high in structural fiber. Through this symbiotic relationship

with bacteria, orangutans are able to obtain energy during low fruiting periods by consuming extremely

high fiber food items, such as leaves and bark. Combining the knowledge of their high fiber diets with

their digestive anatomy would lead one to believe that orangutans have evolved to metabolically rely on

VFAs for a significant proportion of their energy.

Even though fiber is not recognized as an “essential nutrient” by classical animal nutritionists, the

benefits of its presence to gastrointestinal health and metabolism cannot be ignored. In other species, the

presence of fiber in the intestinal tract has been shown to enhance blood flow to the intestines, thereby

promoting nutrient absorption and tissue health (Kvietys & Granger, 1981; Howard et al., 1995). The

presence of VFAs, by-products of fiber fermentation, helps prevent the overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria,

including E. coli and Clostridia (Hidaka et al., 1986; Izat et al., 1991). Volatile fatty acids are also believed

to increase the epithelial cell population of the intestines and stop malignant cell growth, decreasing the

risk of intestinal cancer (Sakata & von Engelhardt, 1993). In addition to energy, many health benefits are

obtained from including fiber in the diet of herbivores. Herbivorous animals, including the orangutan, may

be physiologically dependent upon volatile fatty acids to provide a substantial proportion of their daily

energy supply.

Schmidt (2002) used high-fiber gel diets to evaluate the orangutans’ capacity for digesting fiber. The

fiber concentration in extruded primate biscuits is maximized at 30% due to the manufacturing process.

To increase the fiber concentration, ground corncobs (CC) or soybean hulls (SH) were suspended in a

fiber-based gel matrix. The resulting neutral detergent fiber concentrations were 47% (CC), 64% (CC),

and 53% (SH). These fiber levels were 1.5–2.0 times greater than that provided by extruded primate

biscuits. Results from this study showed that orangutans were able to degrade 58-65% of the fiber in the

CC gel diets and 75% of the fiber from the SH gel diet. While no other orangutan digestibility trials have

been conducted for comparison, the ability of the orangutans in this study to degrade significant

concentrations of fiber was remarkable. Their ability to digest these large quantities of fiber is an

indication that they are capable of relying on fiber fermentation and the resulting VFA production to fulfill

some of their energy needs.

There has been no specific research done on nutritional needs for reproduction or growth in

orangutans. Growing primates have an increased requirement for energy when compared to the

requirements of an adult for maintenance (Kerr, 1972; Nicolsi & Hunt, 1979; King, 1978; Ausman, 1995).

During growth it is also important for juveniles to receive vitamins, calcium, and phosphorus in

appropriate concentrations to meet the demands of bone formation and development. Vitamin D is

necessary for the absorption of calcium. Of the primates that have been studied, primate milk does not

contain sufficient concentrations of vitamin D, which can make nursing infants who are reared indoors

susceptible to vitamin D deficiency and metabolic bone disease (NRC, 2003). Since vitamin D can be

stored by the body and reach toxic concentrations, this supplementation should only occur under the

guidance of a nutritionist or veterinarian. Fortunately, supplementation is rarely required if animals are

given outside access, as vitamin D can also be synthesized in the skin when individuals are exposed to

unfiltered sunlight during spring, summer, and fall months in the Northern Hemisphere.

The specific nutritional needs of reproducing female orangutans are not known. Extrapolating from

other primate research, including information obtained on humans, no additional energy requirements are

needed during the first trimester of pregnancy (NRC, 2003). However, during the second and third

trimesters, it is recommended that the energy content of the diet be increased by 300–350 kcal·day

-1

meet metabolic energy needs for the developing fetal, placental and maternal tissues (FAO/WHO/UNU,

1985; NRC, 1989; Williams, 1997). Protein requirements of pregnant females have also not been

determined. However, when maternal intakes of protein were at least 1 g·BW

-1

·day

-1

the infants were of

normal birth weight (Riopelle et al., 1975; Riopelle & Favret, 1977). Biscuits and a variety of feed items,

including green leafy vegetables, often contain adequate nutrient levels to support females in any

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reproductive state, and diets can simply be increased or decreased to account for changes in energy

requirements.

Lactation is the most energy-demanding physiological state for an individual. Recommendations for

humans by the FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation (1985) are for an additional energy allowance of 500

kcal·day

-1

of metabolizable energy for the first 6 months of lactation. These recommendations may not be

appropriate for orangutans. Energy needs can be assessed by obtaining frequent weights on individuals

to detect changes in weight. If an individual gained excess weight during gestation, it may be best to let

that individual use those energy reserves to meet her increased energy needs during lactation. During

this time it is also imperative that the lactating females receive adequate concentrations of vitamin D,

calcium, and phosphorus for milk production and body maintenance needs. These needs are typically

met through primate biscuits, which are formulated in the appropriate vitamin and mineral concentrations.

As animals age, their energy requirements generally decrease (NRC, 2003). Animals also tend to be

more sedentary and thus burn fewer calories. For these reasons it is important to closely monitor the

individuals’ intakes to ensure they are consuming a nutritionally balanced diet, yet are not consuming too

many calories and risking becoming obese. An animal that has muscle wasting due to inactivity can still

have excessive body fat. Well-monitored exercise programs are important to maintain good health in the

geriatric animal. Daily exhibit use may require furniture adaptation to accommodate arthritic or less agile

animals. Altered mental state or agility in geriatric animals may require adaptation to enrichment activities

as well. With advanced age in orangutans, veterinarians and nutritionists may need to tailor diets to

provide for changing nutritional needs and to maintain good body condition. Common age-related health

issues in geriatric orangutans include renal disease or cardiac failure, and these may require further

specific adaptations of the diet through supplements or restrictions. Poor dentition may also require

special modifications to the diet to achieve adequate intake.

6.2 Diets

The formulation, preparation, and delivery of all diets must be of a quality and quantity suitable to

meet the animal’s psychological and behavioral needs (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.6.2). Food should

be purchased from reliable, sustainable and well-managed sources. The nutritional analysis of the food

should be regularly tested and recorded.

Food preparation must be performed in accordance with all

relevant federal, state, or local laws and/or regulations (AZA

Accreditation Standard 2.6.1). Meat processed on site must be

processed following all USDA standards. The appropriate hazard

analysis and critical control points (HACCP) food safety protocols

for the diet ingredients, diet preparation, and diet administration should be established for orangutan. Diet

preparation staff should remain current on food recalls, updates, and regulations per USDA/FDA.

Remove food within a maximum of 24 hours of being offered unless state or federal regulations specify

otherwise and dispose of per USDA guidelines.

Humans that are ill should neither work directly with non-human primates nor prepare their diets.

When this is not possible, personal protective equipment (PPE) including facemask and barrier gloves

should be worn. Frequent hand-washing and a focus on personal hygiene should be a top priority. For

daily food management, HACCP methods should be instituted in the central nutrition area and individual

non-human primate kitchens. This includes handling, washing, storage, preparation, and provision of

foodstuffs to the animals.

Respiratory and gastrointestinal illnesses are some of the most common

diseases of orangutans, and prudent measures to prevent transmission of such illnesses between staff

and orangutans should be followed.

There are a variety of primate biscuits that will meet the nutritional needs of orangutans. Table 6

gives examples of the biscuits that can be used to establish the base diet for orangutans.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.6.1) Animal food preparation and

storage must meet all applicable laws

and/or regulations.

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Table 6. Sample of nutritionally complete feeds suitable for primate diets as part of an overall diet plan (values

reported on an “as fed” basis).

Nutrient

Mazuri

Primate

L/S Cinnamon

Biscuit 5M1S

Mazuri

Primate

Browse

Biscuit

5MA4

Mazuri

Leaf-

Eater

Primate

Diet

5M02

Marion

Zoological

Leaf Eater

Food

ZuPreem

Primate

Dry Diet

LabDiet

Old

World

Primate

5LG1

Protein, %

Fat, %

6.4

5.2

6.0

6.9

5.0

NDF, %

ADF, %

Crude Fiber, %

Ca, %

1.1

1.3

1.1

0.9

P, %

0.7

0.6

Mg, %

0.2

0.1

0.2

K, %

1.5

0.8

1.1

0.8

1.1

Na, %

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.5

Cl, %

0.3

0.5

0.3

0.4

Fe, mg/kg (or ppm)

190

415

480

218

260

Cu, mg/kg

Mn, mg/kg

100

110

130

Zn, mg/kg

125

165

145

101

110

I, mg/kg

1.5

2.2

1.7

1.0

1.3

Se, mg/kg

0.3

0.2

0.4

0.2

Vitamin A, IU/kg

21,735

23,140

26,920

13,805

40,000

Vitamin D

, IU/kg

4,275

3,325

2,850

3,817

6,600

Vitamin E, mg/kg

318

181

131

319

Vitamin K, mg/kg

2.3

2.9

3.8

3.0

Thiamin (B

), mg/kg

7.2

Riboflavin(B

mg/kg

8.7

Pantothenic acid,

mg/kg

142

Niacin, mg/kg

190

100

Vitamin B

, mg/kg

Biotin, mg/kg

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.3

Folacin, mg/kg

9.1

5.2

1.3

Vitamin B12, mg/kg

0.09

0.065

0.05

0.03

0.02

Vitamin C, mg/kg

665

475

720

350

680

Choline, mg/kg

2,375

1,580

1,425

1382

1,200

PMI Nutrition International, LLC, St. Louis, MO 63166

Marion Zoological, Plymouth, MN 55441

ZuPreem, Shawnee, KS 66214

^Missing values unavailable from manufacturer.

Formulating diets based on the caloric needs of the animal is recommended over feeding a food

amount based on a percentage of body mass. Table 6 provides examples of diet proportions successfully

fed to orangutans at four zoological institutions that have cared for and bred orangutans. Since fruits and

primate biscuits are the most calorie-dense items, target feeding them to animals will help control caloric

intake. The fruit portion of the diet can also be reserved for training rewards. Fruit is not an essential part

of the diet and can even be eliminated if animals are severely obese. Leafy green vegetables and/or low-

starch vegetables are recommended in higher proportions due to the lower calorie concentration of these

items.

Table 7. Orangutan diet proportions (as fed basis) offered at four zoological parks.

Diet Item

Adult Male

Adult Female

Juvenile

Primate Biscuits

5–17 %

9–14 %

Fruit

4–20 %

4–17 %

7–18 %

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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Vegetable

4–19 %

9–19 %

Root/Starch

2–25 %

2–22 %

5–23 %

Leafy Green Vegetables

36–85 %

39–85 %

37–60 %

Table 7 gives examples of diet proportions based on diets from Table 6 with “added”

recommendations for low concentrations of fruit and root/starch proportions. As biscuit concentrations of

the diet increase, leafy green concentrations would decrease.

Table 8. Examples of orangutan diets using recommended diet proportions.

Diet Item

Low Biscuit

Medium Biscuit

High Biscuit

Primate Biscuits

5 %

11 %

17 %

Fruit

4 %

Vegetable

20 %

Root/Starch

2 %

Leafy Green Vegetables

69 %

63 %

57 %

Table 8 lists the nutrient concentrations of those example diets. Primate biscuits were entered in the

program as an average of the biscuits reported in Table 5, with the exception of ZuPreem

Primate Diet.

Since the nutrient concentration of the ZuPreem

primate biscuits is not reported by the manufacturer,

that option was excluded from the mix. The fruit category included apples, bananas, oranges, pears and

grapes. The vegetable category contained celery, green beans, green peppers, tomatoes, cucumbers

and squash. The root/starch category comprised carrots, sweet potatoes, corn, onions and green peas.

The leafy green vegetable category consisted of romaine, iceberg and loose leaf lettuces, cabbage, and

kale.

The diet item with the highest concentration of fiber, typically NDF and ADF, will be primate biscuits.

While various types of primate biscuits are available, it is important to select a variety of those that offer

high concentrations of fermentable fiber. Offering animals a rotation of these higher fiber biscuits will not

only increase the variety of foods available to the animals throughout the week, but may encourage better

primate biscuit consumption. A relatively new primate biscuit formulation providing a lower starch (7% vs.

19–29%), higher fiber concentration (33% NDF vs. 19-29% NDF) has been made available within the

past few years and is used by several institutions with success.

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, produce items are typically much lower in NDF and ADF than

free-ranging orangutans consume. Though humans are encouraged to have a plethora of produce in their

daily diets, produce cultivated for human consumption does not provide the same level of fiber that

orangutans consume in the wild. Browse is a great way to include higher fiber concentrations in the diet,

but few zoos have a year-round source of browse.

Also remember that fruits are typically much higher in sugars than those that orangutans consume in

the wild, so feed sparingly. Root vegetables and starchy items (e.g., peas, corn) are also high in

sugar/starch and these should be offered sparingly as well. It is recommended to feed larger quantities of

regular vegetables (e.g., cucumbers, peppers, squash, green beans, broccoli, etc.) and leafy green

vegetables (e.g., lettuces, cabbage, kale, and greens) compared to root and fruit produce.

Table 9. Nutrient analyses of diet recommendations from Table 7 (dry matter basis).

Nutrient

Low Biscuit

Medium Biscuit

High Biscuit

Proposed

Minimum

Nutrient

Guidelines*

Protein, %

15–22

Fat, %

4.2

4.6

4.7

n/a

NDF, %

18.9

22.0

23.7

10–30

ADF, %

13.5

14.8

15.6

5–15

Ca, %

0.9

1.0

1.1

0.8

P, %

0.5

0.6

Mg, %

0.17

0.18

0.2

0.08

K, %

2.2

1.9

1.7

0.4

Na, %

0.3

0.2

Cl, %

0.1

0.2

Fe, mg/kg (or ppm)

183

234

262

100

Cu, mg/kg

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Nutrient

Low Biscuit

Medium Biscuit

High Biscuit

Proposed

Minimum

Nutrient

Guidelines*

Mn, mg/kg

Zn, mg/kg

108

100

I, mg/kg

0.64

1.01

1.22

0.35

Se, mg/kg

0.1

0.2

0.3

Vitamin A, IU/kg

335,480

229,180

170,180

8,000

Vitamin D

, IU/kg

1,650

2,600

3,120

2,500

Vitamin E, mg/kg

113

138

152

100

Vitamin K, mg/kg

0.9

1.4

1.7

0.5

Thiamin (B

), mg/kg

Riboflavin(B

), mg/kg

Pantothenic acid, mg/kg

Niacin, mg/kg

Vitamin B

, mg/kg

Biotin, mg/kg

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.2

Folacin, mg/kg

Vitamin B

, mg/kg

1.8

2.8

3.3

0.03

Vitamin C, mg/kg

2,750

1,982

1,555

200

Choline, mg/kg

631

992

1,192

750

ME Calories, kcal/g

3.08

3.06

3.04

not applicable

*Target values based on NRC (2003)

When feeding any managed animal, it is important to consider various factors that may affect an

individual’s diet. Issues such as animal preference, body condition, health status, and activity level should

be considered when determining types and quantity of food to feed an individual. Animals housed in

groups should receive enough food to meet their nutritional needs and limit aggressive encounters;

however, the quantity should not allow animals to be overly selective in what they eat. For example,

allowing them to consume mostly produce while avoiding primate biscuits, a nutritionally complete feed,

could lead to nutrient imbalances. Animals that are fed as a group should have a small amount of food left

over after the feeding period. This ensures that no individual is being deprived of food.

Produce can vary in size and the amount of water it contains. Nutritionally complete feeds also vary in

density, even from lot to lot of the same product. For these reasons, it is very important to weigh food in

each category rather than preparing the diet by counting food items (i.e., weigh out 250 g (8.8 oz.) of

apple instead of offering one apple).

The term “produce” refers to the vast array of readily available fruits, vegetables, and leafy greens

cultivated for human tastes. Many caretakers want to offer orangutans and other exotic animals more

“natural diets” by using produce as the sole source of nutrients. Although orangutans are highly

frugivorous in the wild, the fruits and other plant items they consume in the wild are drastically different in

composition from the fruits cultivated for human consumption (Knott, 1999; Schmidt et al., 1999; Schmidt,

2002). Fruits eaten by free-ranging orangutans are much higher in structural fiber, while fruits cultivated

for humans are typically lower in fiber and higher in sugar to satisfy human tastes. It is impossible to meet

the average fiber levels consumed by wild orangutans using only commercially available produce. When

formulating diets, it is important to remember that animals require specific nutrients, not specific dietary

items.

When possible, offer produce items with the peels and cores intact. Removing these items may also

remove potential sources of structural fiber. If in doubt concerning what is safe for an animal, consult with

your institution’s nutritionist and/or veterinarian. Cooked produce items, especially those high in starch

(e.g., yams, white potatoes), contain more readily available sugars than raw produce (Pretorius, 1997).

Cooked items should be used sparingly to minimize the intake of easily digested sugars. Consistently

offering foods high in easily digested sugars may increase an individual’s risk of becoming overweight

and even obese, conditions that may contribute to secondary health issues later in life.

If dried produce items are used, they should not be offered in equivalent weights as fresh fruits. For

example, if the diet calls for 100 grams of fresh bananas, you should not offer the animal 100 grams of

dried banana chips instead. This would be equivalent to offering the orangutan approximately 5 servings

of fresh bananas.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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While nuts and seeds (e.g., sunflower seeds) are not typically thought of as “produce,” they do

originate from plants and are often included in managed primate diets. Nuts and seeds are often

scattered in an animal’s enclosure to provide the animal with a substance that encourages foraging. Both

of these foods should be used in moderation, especially with overweight or obese individuals, due to their

extremely high fat content. Gram per gram, fat contains twice as many calories as protein or

carbohydrates.

While produce can contribute vitamins, minerals, fats, and protein to an orangutan’s diet, it should not

be relied upon to supply these nutrients to the animal. In other words, the orangutan’s diet should be

based on the nutritionally complete feeds (e.g., primate biscuits) with a variety of produce added to

complement the diet. A multitude of produce items are available through vendors and every opportunity

should be taken to offer the orangutans an assortment of items. Produce rotation schedules help ensure

variety in the diet, make the diet more behaviorally enriching, and ensure that individuals do not

repeatedly receive high sugar/starch produce items.

The way food is presented to the animals can also be enriching. Cutting produce into different

sized/shaped pieces or leaving it whole allows different modes of presentation. The small pieces can be

scattered or hidden in other substrates (e.g., hay, grassy areas), while the whole pieces can be placed in

areas that may be more difficult to access or that would not be good for scattered items (e.g., tree forks,

behind rocks). If infants are present, consider the size of the foods so they do not create a choking

hazard.

Nutritionally complete feeds: The term “nutritionally complete” means that the product contains the

correct proportions of the recommended vitamins, minerals, protein, and fats for the species for which it

was formulated. Primate biscuits, which are manufactured by multiple companies, come in a variety of

shapes, sizes, and colors.

Primate feeds formulated for New World primates should be avoided when feeding orangutans.

These formulas contain significantly higher concentrations of vitamin D than are required by Old World

primate species, which can be harmful to orangutans. Be sure to select feeds that will reliably be

consumed. It may help to rotate types of biscuits offered throughout the week to create variety.

Vitamin and mineral supplementation: Nutritionally complete feeds contain the necessary and correct

proportions of vitamins and minerals for primates. Adding supplemental vitamins and minerals

prophylactically can actually harm an animal if the individual is consuming a nutritionally balanced diet.

The body is able to store certain fat-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamins A, D, E) and minerals, which can

reach toxic levels. Pre-natal vitamins for pregnant animals may be one exception to this rule. Nursing

infants, who do not have access to natural, unfiltered sunlight, may also benefit from a supplemental dose

of vitamin D to enhance appropriate bone growth and development (Holick & Chen, 2008).

Animal products: Some institutions use dairy products (e.g., yogurt, milk) as a vehicle for medication or

as a food enrichment item. Orangutans do not have a dietary need for dairy products and may experience

symptoms associated with lactose intolerance, including bloating and diarrhea. If dairy products are fed, it

is recommended that no-fat or low-fat products be used and only in moderation.

Orangutans are typically thought of as frugivores, but have been seen to eat animal matter in the wild

(Sugardjito & Nurhuda, 1981; Utami & van Hooff, 1997). If managed orangutans are consuming their

nutritionally complete feeds, they will be meeting their dietary requirements for protein. Feeding managed

orangutans meat products to fulfill their protein needs is not necessary, nor is it encouraged (Dierenfeld,

1990, 1997).

Giving specific recommendations on the amount of food to offer an individual is not practical due to

differences in life stages (e.g., growth, lactation, and pregnancy), body condition, activity levels, and

acceptance of the nutritionally complete feeds. Body weight and condition should be monitored to allow

for dietary modifications depending on life stage (growing,

maintenance, and senescence), activity level and reproductive

status (pregnancy, lactation).

Food preparation must be performed in accordance with all

relevant federal, state, or local laws and/or regulations (AZA

Accreditation Standard 2.6.1). Meat processed on site must be

processed following all USDA standards. The appropriate hazard analysis and critical control points

(HACCP) food safety protocols for the diet ingredients, diet preparation, and diet administration should be

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.6.1) Animal food preparation and

storage must meet all applicable laws

and/or regulations.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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established for orangutans. Diet preparation staff should remain current on food recalls, updates, and

regulations per USDA/FDA. Remove food within a maximum of 24 hours of being offered unless state or

federal regulations specify otherwise, and dispose of per USDA guidelines.

If browse plants are used within the animal’s diet or for

enrichment, all plants must be identified and assessed for safety.

The responsibility for approval of plants and oversight of the

program must be assigned to at least one qualified individual

(AZA Accreditation Standard 2.6.3). The program should identify if

the plants have been treated with any chemicals or near any point

sources of pollution and if the plants are safe for the species. If animals have access to plants in and

around their exhibits, there should be a staff member responsible for ensuring that toxic plants are not

available.

The Orangutan Husbandry Manual (

http://www.czs.org/Centers-of-Excellence/Center-for-Animal-

Welfare/Animal-Husbandry/Orangutan-Husbandry-Manual) contains a chapter with a browse list of over

285 plants that were gathered through a survey of various institutions that house orangutans. A list of

plants that were provided by three or more institutions can be found in Appendix G. Plants are listed in

alphabetical order by common name, followed by the scientific name. Remember that any plant under

consideration as animal browse or enrichment should first be approved by an institution’s veterinary staff.

6.3 Nutritional Evaluations

Excessive weight gain can influence a multitude of health-related problems. These include increased

occurrences of mortality, high blood pressure, heart disease, cancer, degenerative arthritis, respiratory

problems, diabetes, and liver disease (fatty liver) (Hensrud, 2002). In the wild, on average, male

orangutans weigh 86.3 kg (190 lbs.) while females weigh 38.7 kg (85 lbs.) (Markham & Groves, 1990).

Loomis (2003) reported weight ranges for males as 75–189 kg (165–417 lbs.) and 40–81 kg (88–179 lbs.)

for females; these weights include those of managed individuals. The lower weights from Loomis

correspond to the free-ranging orangutan weights reported by Markham and Groves (1990). However, the

upper-end weights are double those of the free-ranging weights and were most likely obtained from

extremely obese managed animals. In humans, obesity is defined as having reached a weight 20%

(males) to 25% (females) above one’s maximum target weight. Orangutans exhibit the same pattern of

macronutrient regulation that has also been observed in humans (Gosby et al., 2013; Raubenheimer et

al., 2014), and is thought to be responsible for the rise in obesity over recent years as the human diet has

become more consistently protein-dilute (the “protein leverage hypothesis”). This suggests that, like

humans, orangutans are adapted to alternating periods of fruit (high energy) and leaves (low energy) in

the wild, and continual access to high energy fruit, as is provided in managed diets, predisposes them to

obesity (Vogel et al., in preparation). Diet and activity levels are the two most critical components to

maintaining animals at appropriate weights. It is recommended that frequent weights be obtained on

individuals to prevent undetected, rapid weight changes.

Many managed adult orangutans have been classified as overweight and even obese (Jones, 1982).

As mentioned above, obesity is often associated with an increased risk of diabetes. There have been

numerous anecdotal claims that managed orangutans are prone to encountering problems with diabetes

mellitus. Wells et al. (1990) conducted a medical management survey on orangutans housed in North

American zoos. They reported that while endocrine system disorders were rare, the most common

endocrine disorder reported was diabetes. Six animals out of 249 individuals on whom responses were

received were diagnosed as diabetic. The full extent to which diabetes affects the managed population

has not yet been documented in the literature. Glucose tolerance tests that determine if an individual is at

risk for developing diabetes were given to 30 managed orangutans, and results showed that these

animals had a propensity for developing diabetes (Gresl et al., 2000).

Though great apes are genetically similar to humans, they develop a very different type of

cardiovascular disease. Apes do not get atherosclerotic coronary artery disease, which is typically seen in

humans; instead they are diagnosed with fibrosing cardiomyopathy at necropsy (Schulman et al., 1995;

Varki, 2009; MacManamon & Lowenstine, 2012). Mortality reports cite cardiovascular disease as the

cause of death in 20% of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus, Pongo abelii; Lowenstine et al., 2008). It is also

being reported as a premature cause of death in young apes (GAHP, 2012).

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.6.3) The institution must assign at least

one paid or unpaid staff member to

oversee appropriate browse material for

the animals (including aquatic animals).

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Chapter 7. Veterinary Care

7.1 Veterinary Services

Veterinary services are a vital component of excellent animal

care practices. A full-time staff veterinarian is recommended,

however, in cases where this is not necessary, a consulting/part-

time veterinarian must be under contract to make at least twice

monthly inspections of the animal collection and to attend any

emergencies (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.1.1). In some

instances, because of their size or nature, exceptions may be

made to the twice-monthly inspection requirement for certain

institutions (e.g., insects only, etc.). Veterinary coverage must

also be available at all times so that any indications of disease,

injury, or stress may be responded to in a timely manner (AZA

Accreditation Standard 2.1.2). All AZA-accredited institutions

should adopt the guidelines for medical programs developed by

the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV), available

at the AAZV website under “Publications”, at

http://www.aazv.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=83

9 (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.0.1). To contact the AZA

Orangutan SSP Veterinary Advisors, visit the AZA Animal

Programs page of the AZA website.

Additional resources: See the “Veterinary Medical

Management” section of the Orangutan Husbandry Manual and

"Medical Management of the Orangutan" (Wells et al., 1990) for

additional information. Veterinary advisors are available for

consultation for more updated information where available.

Protocols for the use and security of drugs used for

veterinary purposes must be formally written and available to

paid and unpaid animal care staff (AZA Accreditation Standard

2.2.1). Procedures should include, but are not limited to: a list of

persons authorized to administer animal drugs, situations in

which they are to be utilized, location of animal drugs and those

persons with access to them, and emergency procedures in the

event of accidental human exposure.

The similar size and physiology of great apes and humans

makes human formularies and medical texts excellent resources

for dosage recommendations for orangutans and other apes. In

the United States, because no medications are specifically

approved for use in orangutans, all veterinary or human pharmaceuticals are therefore prescribed for

them in an “extra label” fashion. Veterinarians in the United States may legally utilize any human or

animal drug that is FDA-approved for use in animals or humans, although these medications have not

been formally evaluated for scientific evidence of safety or efficacy in exotic animals.

Veterinary recordkeeping is an important element of animal care and ensures that information about

individual animals and their treatment is always available. A designated staff member should be

responsible for maintaining accurate animal veterinary record keeping. Ensuring that orangutans are

identifiable through various means increases the ability to care for individuals more effectively. Animal

records should include animal weights, current record of the animals’ health, previous health issues and

the subsequent treatments, any and all diagnostic tests performed and their corresponding results, and

records of immobilization procedures and anesthesia dosing.

7.2 Transfer Examination and Diagnostic Testing Recommendations

The transfer of animals between AZA-accredited institutions or certified related facilities due to AZA

Animal Program recommendations occurs often as part of a concerted effort to preserve these species.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.1.1) A full-time staff veterinarian is

recommended. In cases where such is

not necessary because of the number

and/or nature of the animals residing

there, a consulting/part-time veterinarian

must be under written contract to make at

least twice monthly inspections of the

animals and to respond as soon as

possible to any emergencies.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.1.2) So that indications of disease,

injury, or stress may be dealt with

promptly, veterinary coverage must be

available to the animals 24 hours a day, 7

days a week.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.2.1) Written, formal procedures must

be available to paid and unpaid animal

care staff for the use of animal drugs for

veterinary purposes, and appropriate

security of the drugs must be provided.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.0.1) The institution should adopt the

Guidelines for Zoo and Aquarium

Veterinary Medical Programs and

Veterinary Hospitals, and policies

developed or supported by the American

Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV).

The most recent edition of the medical

programs and hospitals booklet is

available at the AAZV website, under

“Publications”, at

http://www.aazv.org/displaycommon.cfm?

an=1&subarticlenbr=839, and can also be

obtained in PDF format by contacting

AZA staff.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

These transfers should be done as altruistically as possible and the costs associated with specific

examination and diagnostic testing for determining the health of these animals should be considered.

Prior to transfer from one institution to another, it is important to determine the health status of the

orangutan to ensure that it is fit to endure the stress of relocation and to minimize the transmission of

infectious diseases from one institution to another. This can be accomplished through a review of the

individual orangutan's medical history, a review of the medical history of the conspecifics at the sending

institution, a thorough physical exam, and additional diagnostic testing. The focus of the exam and

diagnostic testing should include the same baseline data obtained during the quarantine period (see

Appendix H for physiological reference ranges for orangutans) with emphasis on infectious diseases that

might pose a risk to the other animals at the receiving institution. Due to the high incidence of respiratory

and cardiac disease in orangutans and their typical subclinical nature, it is strongly recommended that

individuals over 25 years of age have a thorough cardiac exam including echocardiography and all

orangutans have a thorough evaluation of their respiratory health prior to transfer.

7.3 Quarantine

AZA institutions must have holding facilities or procedures for

the quarantine of newly arrived animals and isolation facilities or

procedures for the treatment of sick/injured animals. Quarantine

duration should be assessed and determined by the pathogen

risk and best practice for animal welfare (AZA Accreditation

Standard 2.7.1). All quarantine, hospital, and isolation areas

should be in compliance with AZA standards/guidelines (AZA

Accreditation Standard 2.7.3; Appendix E). All quarantine

procedures should be supervised by a veterinarian, formally

written and available to paid and unpaid staff working with

quarantined animals (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.7.2). If a

specific quarantine facility is not present, then newly acquired

animals should be kept separate from the established collection

to prohibit physical contact, prevent disease transmission, and

avoid aerosol and drainage contamination. If the receiving

institution lacks appropriate facilities for quarantine, pre-shipment

quarantine at an AZA or American Association for Laboratory

Animal Science (AALAS) accredited institution may be

applicable. Local, state, or federal regulations that are more

stringent than AZA Standards and recommendation have

precedence.

Quarantine facilities should be able to safely house

orangutans for the duration of their quarantine period. All safety

and health requirements of regular housing should be maintained

in quarantine quarters but because of the short-term duration of

an orangutan’s stay, the available space may be smaller. As

such, extra attention should be paid to creating a stimulating

environment for the orangutan, especially if that individual is housed alone. In some cases, when

appropriate and safe quarantine facilities are not available at the receiving institutions, quarantine may be

conducted at a nearby institution with appropriate coordination of the veterinary staffs of the sending,

receiving, and intermediary facilities.

Quarantine protocols: The purpose of quarantine is protection of the existing animals and their

personnel from the introduction of infectious agents from the newly arriving animal(s). The quarantine

period (30-60 days) is accomplished by separation of the new animals from the existing group, and

screening them for known diseases. The depth of this screening will vary with the previous history of the

individual animal and its collection source. In situations where minimal prior screening has been

accomplished, it is important to consider longer quarantine intervals (60-90 days), and for those animals

from private facilities or the wild, this extension can be increased to 90-120 days. Federal regulations may

require a minimum quarantine duration for primates imported from other countries.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.7.1) The institution must have holding

facilities or procedures for the quarantine

of newly arrived animals and isolation

facilities or procedures for the treatment

of sick/injured animals. Quarantine

duration should be assessed and

determined by the pathogen risk and best

practice for animal welfare.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.7.3) Quarantine, hospital, and isolation

areas should be in compliance with

standards/guidelines contained within the

Guidelines for Zoo and Aquarium

Veterinary Medical Programs and

Veterinary Hospitals developed by the

American Association of Zoo

Veterinarians (AAZV), which can be

obtained at:

http://www.aazv.org/displaycommon.cfm?

an=1&subarticlenbr=839.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.7.2) Written, formal procedures for

quarantine must be available and familiar

to all paid and unpaid staff working with

quarantined animals.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

AZA institutions must have zoonotic disease prevention

procedures and training protocols established to minimize the risk

of transferable diseases (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.1.2) with

all animals, including those newly acquired in quarantine.

Keepers should be designated to care only for quarantined

animals if possible. If keepers should care for both quarantined and resident animals of the same class,

they should care for the quarantined animals only after caring for the resident animals. Care should be

taken to ensure that these keepers are “decontaminated” before caring for the healthy resident animals

again. Equipment used to feed, care for, and enrich animals in quarantine should be used only with these

animals. If this is not possible, then all items should be appropriately disinfected, as designated by the

veterinarian supervising quarantine before use with resident animals.

Use of personal protective equipment, including disposable gloves, surgical masks, gowns, or

surgical scrubs worn only in the quarantine area, and a footbath placed for use upon entering and leaving

the quarantine area, should be used to help reduce the transmission of zoonotic diseases. Disinfection

techniques for equipment and devices are similar to recommendations for all other nonhuman primates.

During periods of illness or during the quarantine period, it may be necessary to house individuals in

isolation from other orangutans. While the orangutan is a social species, individuals do spend long

periods of time alone in the wild, and do not have the same permanent social groupings typical of the

other great ape species. However, this does not mean that isolation will not have a negative impact on an

individual. Factors such as age, previous social groupings, and personality traits can have a significant

impact on how an individual will react to isolation. During isolation, the orangutan should be monitored for

signs of stress. Stress may be manifested as abnormal behavior, stereotypic behavior, inactivity/lethargy,

decreased appetite, weight loss, and soft/loose stool. Stress also has a negative impact on immune

function, and may result in exacerbation of disease or recrudescence of subclinical disease. Efforts to

minimize stress should be employed.

Stress can be reduced in a variety of ways. While an orangutan is in isolation, it is important that its

environment be as large and enriching as possible. Food should be presented in a manner that promotes

foraging and problem-solving, unless such a presentation has a negative impact on appetite. Enclosure

size and design should encourage natural behaviors such as climbing, swinging, and nesting. Other

forms of environmental enrichment that stimulate any of the senses should be provided on a rotating

basis. Training and interaction with personnel may also provide enrichment, depending on the individual

orangutan. However, it is important that such activities do not contribute to the overall stress of the

individual during isolation. In cases of stress following a transfer, the temporary relocation of a previous

caretaker to the receiving institution has been employed successfully to create familiarity and routine in

the new location.

As part of the quarantine evaluation, the group that the quarantined animal will enter should have

known status for the infectious agents of concern. This is managed through routine physical examinations

and documented in their medical history. For the new animal, quarantine begins with a thorough review of

the medical records and social history of the individual, its source group, and collection history. Medical

records for each animal should be accurately maintained and easily available during the quarantine

period. Prior to departure from the sending institution, the orangutan should receive a complete

examination that should also be reviewed by the receiving institution's veterinarian and curator before

departure. Within the quarantine period at the new facility, the orangutan should be immobilized for a

repeated physical examination to identify occult health issues that may have been triggered by the stress

of transfer. When health issues are identified during quarantine, appropriate treatment regimens should

be prescribed.

During the quarantine period, specific diagnostic tests should be conducted with each animal (see

Table 8). A complete physical exam, including a dental examination, should be performed. Animals

should be evaluated for ectoparasites and treated accordingly. Blood should be collected, analyzed, and

the sera banked in either a -80 ºC (-112 ºF) freezer or a frost-free -20 ºC (-4 ºF) freezer for retrospective

evaluation. Serosurveillance for viral pathogens is a standard practice in primate medicine. The results

help with the understanding of the biology of viruses within great apes. Individual and group histories and

impact on conspecifics and adjacent species should be considered with interpretation of the results. Fecal

samples should be collected and analyzed for gastrointestinal parasites and the animals should be

treated accordingly. Vaccinations should be updated as appropriate, and if the vaccination history is not

known, the animal should be treated as immunologically naive and given the appropriate series of

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.1.2) Training and procedures must be

in place regarding zoonotic diseases.

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vaccinations. See Section 7.4 (Preventive Medicine) for more details on vaccinations. Collection of

biomaterial samples for AZA SSP-approved research projects should also be considered during the

quarantine exam when possible. Animals should be permanently identified by their natural markings or, if

necessary, marked when anesthetized or restrained (e.g., tattoo, RFID, etc.). Medical records for each

animal should be accurately maintained and easily available during the quarantine period.

Quarantine should last a minimum of 30 days (unless otherwise directed by the staff veterinarian). If

additional mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians or fish of the same order are introduced into their

corresponding quarantine areas, the minimum quarantine period must begin over again. However, the

addition of mammals of a different order to those already in quarantine will not require the re-initiation of

the quarantine period.

Table 10. Recommended disease surveillance and baseline medical data.

Procedure

Comments

Physical examination

Includes a complete review of all body systems.

Dental examination

Includes a thorough assessment of all teeth and oral soft tissue. Dental prophylaxis

should be performed if needed.

Body weight

Weight should be obtained at the start and end of quarantine as well as during the

physical exam.

Verify permanent

identification

Includes transponder, tattoo, unique physical characteristics, etc.

Fecal parasite exam

Includes direct and concentrating techniques (flotation, centrifugation, sedimentation).

Additional diagnostics targeting parasites of concern for orangutans include Giardia and

Cryptosporidium screening (e.g. IFA, ELISA, PCR), and Baermann technique for

identification of Strongyloides spp.

Fecal bacterial pathogen

screening

Screening should include tests for Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Campylobacter spp.,

pathogenic E. coli strains, and Yersinia spp.

Blood collection

--Complete blood count (CBC)

--Serum biochemistry profile

--Lipid panel (includes cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL, VLDL)

--Blood typing (if unknown)

--Serum banking

--Consider cardiac biomarkers (CRP, BNP), cholecalciferol (vitamin D), vitamin B12, and

folate testing

Viral screening

Full panel recommended once per lifetime or during quarantine with subsequent testing

according to potential exposure

--Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV)

--Simian Foamy Virus (SFV)

--Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

--Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1, HSV-2)

--Influenza A and B (Flu A, Flu B)

--Parainfluenza 1, 2, and 3

--Respiratory Syncitial Virus (RSV)

--Simian Adenovirus (SA-8)

--Measles

--Human Varicella Zoster (HVZ)

--Epstein Barr Virus (EBV)

--Hepatitis A, B, and C

Immunizations

Immunization history should be reviewed and vaccines administered as needed

according to the preventive medicine guidelines (section 6.5).

Imaging

--Thoracic, abdominal, and dental radiography

--Abdominal ultrasonography considered for adults

--Computed tomography (CT) imaging of sinuses, air sacs, and thorax recommended

when feasible to screen for respiratory infections.

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Procedure

Comments

Mycobacterial testing

Mycobacterial testing results from orangutans are challenging to interpret and many

tests have not been validated (see Section 6.5 for more details). Testing that has been

performed includes:

--Intradermal skin testing

--Culture of lavage fluid (gastric, tracheal, or bronchoalveolar)

--Gamma interferon testing (e.g. Primagam

)

--PCR antigen testing

--ELISA antibody test (e.g. ChemBio

)

Cardiac disease

screening

Cardiac data should be submitted to the Great Ape Heart Project when collected.

Although normal reference ranges are not established for orangutans, the following

should be performed on individuals to screen for cardiac disease and to help establish a

database to determine normals:

--Echocardiography

--Blood pressure

--Electrocardiogram (EKG)

--Cardiac biomarkers (e.g. BNP, CRP)

Depending on the disease and history of the animals, testing protocols for animals may vary from an

initial quarantine test to yearly repetitions of diagnostic tests as determined by the veterinarian. Animals

should be permanently identified by their natural markings or, if

necessary, marked when anesthetized or restrained (e.g., tattoo,

ear notch, ear tag, etc.). Release from quarantine should be

contingent upon normal results from diagnostic testing and two

negative fecal tests that are spaced a minimum of two weeks

apart. Medical records for each animal should be accurately

maintained and easily available during the quarantine period.

If an animal should die in quarantine, a necropsy should be

performed on it to determine cause of death in order to

strengthen the program of veterinary care and meet SSP-related

requests (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.5.1). The institution

should have an area dedicated to performing necropsies, and the

subsequent disposal of the body must be done in accordance

with any local or federal laws (AZA Accreditation Standards 2.5.2

and 2.5.3). If the animal is on loan from another facility, the loan

agreement should be consulted as to the owner’s wishes for

disposition of the carcass; if nothing is stated, the owner should

be consulted. Necropsies should include a detailed external and

internal gross morphological examination and representative

tissue samples from the body organs should be submitted for

histopathological examination (see Chapter 7.6).

7.4 Preventive Medicine

AZA-accredited institutions should have an extensive

veterinary program that must emphasize disease prevention

(AZA Accreditation Standard 2.0.2). AZA institutions should be

aware of and prepared for periodic disease outbreaks in other

animal populations that might affect the institution’s animals, and

should develop plans to protect the institution’s animals in these

situations (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.0.3). The American

Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV) has developed an

outline of an effective preventative veterinary medicine program that should be implemented to ensure

proactive veterinary care for all animals:

(www.aazv.org/associations/6442/files/zoo_aquarium_vet_med_guidelines.pdf

An appropriate orangutan health care program includes proper animal husbandry and veterinary care

based on these current professional standards, and addresses the complete physical and behavioral well-

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.5.1) Deceased animals should be

necropsied to determine the cause of

death for tracking morbidity and mortality

trends to strengthen the program of

veterinary care and meet SSP-related

requests.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.0.2) The veterinary care program must

emphasize disease prevention.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.0.3) Institutions should be aware of and

prepared for periodic disease outbreaks

in wild or other domestic or exotic animal

populations that might affect the

institution’s animals (ex – Avian Influenza,

Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus, etc.).

Plans should be developed that outline

steps to be taken to protect the

institution’s animals in these situations.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.5.2) The institution should have an

area dedicated to performing necropsies.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.5.3) Cadavers must be kept in a

dedicated storage area before and after

necropsy. Remains must be disposed of

in accordance with local/federal laws.

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being of the animals. Since orangutans have a close taxonomic relationship to humans, they are

susceptible to many human diseases. Close contact between people and orangutans in the zoo setting

may lead to inadvertent exposure to disease for either group. Sub-clinical infectious disease can occur in

orangutan groups and can be transmitted not only to naïve conspecifics, but also human caregivers. A

successful preventive medicine program therefore addresses the health of both the orangutans and the

animal care staff. Veterinary care with a strong preventive medicine program will minimize the need for

acute and emergency medical care. Caregivers should monitor the individual health of each orangutan to

facilitate a healthy environment. The basic components of a sound program include: 1) cleaning and

disinfection protocols, 2) pest control, 3) an adequate nutrition and feeding program, 4) zoonotic disease

prevention, 5) pre-shipment and quarantine testing, 6) routine exams and disease screening, 7)

immunizations and other prophylactic measures, and 8) complete necropsies.

Daily observations of orangutan health and behavior are critical to maintaining good orangutan health

on a daily basis. Careful inspections of each individual, how it relates to its conspecifics, appetite,

eliminations, and detecting signs of injury or disease should be made by keepers – preferably multiple

times or by multiple keepers – each day. To complete this process, a written record should document

these observations, and should be provided to the veterinarians. Operant conditioning programs could be

implemented to include behaviors associated with daily management routines and veterinary procedures,

such as weighing, body part inspections, oral inspection, injection presentation, venipuncture, and

auscultation.

It is recommended that each orangutan receive a complete physical examination at least every three

years. Four or more years between exams may be too infrequent to identify and address common health

problems. The frequency of exams should be based on the age, concurrent disease, and individual ape

risk factors. Most institutions immobilize their orangutans every one to three years. The ability to perform

exams and certain diagnostics utilizing operant conditioning can reduce the frequency of immobilizations,

but should not completely replace them. For example, exams may be reduced to every three years

instead of annually. Advanced age alone should not be considered a contraindication to immobilization,

as geriatric individuals are the ones most likely to benefit from the findings of the exam and diagnostics.

More frequent examination allows anesthetic protocols to be safely fine-tuned for the individual, and

evaluation of potential health issues (e.g. dental and periodontal disease, heart disease, respiratory

disease, degenerative arthritis), without waiting for potentially catastrophic illness. Risk-versus-benefit

assessments are essential for each individual animal, and case-by-case individual exemptions may be

judged necessary by the attending veterinarians.

Recommended disease surveillance and baseline medical data performed during routine exams can

be found in Table 8. A thorough physical exam is best performed under general anesthesia. Although

exams utilizing operant conditioning are an excellent supplement to the preventive medicine program, the

quality of the exam and diagnostics performed are often substandard compared to those performed under

anesthesia. Additionally, the routine immobilization of a healthy individual allows the veterinarian to fine-

tune the most appropriate anesthetic protocol for that individual such that staff are better prepared for

emergency immobilizations.

The physical exam should consist of a thorough, systematic review of all body systems. In general, a

weight should be obtained and body condition assessed with a body condition score (BCS) assigned.

Using the standard nine-point scale, a BCS of one would indicate an emaciated animal with decreased

muscle mass and no fat stores, a BCS of five would indicate an ideal amount of muscling and fat stores,

and a BCS of nine would indicate a morbidly obese animal with excessive fat stores. An orangutan-

specific BCS system is not currently available at this time. A crown–to-rump length may help in

determining a correlation between weight and BCS. Identifiers such as tattoos and microchips should be

confirmed. An ophthalmic exam should be performed using an ophthalmoscope or slit lamp. A fundic

exam should also be considered when possible. Ears should be evaluated using an otoscope. Nasal

cavities can be examined using a light source and nasal speculum. The oral cavity should be evaluated,

with attention to gingiva, other soft tissues, oropharynx, and dentition. A thorough dental exam, including

subgingival probing, should be performed to identify subclinical dental disease. If needed, prophylactic

dental scaling and polishing should be performed. Regular tooth brushing and flossing through operant

conditioning has been utilized to decrease the frequency of dental prophylactic cleaning. The thorax

should be auscultated to listen for lung sounds in all lung fields, as well as to assess the heart for signs of

murmurs or arrhythmias. The air sac should be thoroughly palpated for evidence of fluid, thickening, or

masses. The abdomen should be palpated to check for masses, fluid, or organomegaly. In larger

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individuals, abdominal ultrasonography is more effective at assessing abdominal organs. Peripheral

lymph nodes should be palpated to check for enlargement or masses. The skin should be thoroughly

investigated to check for skin lesions, external parasites, or wounds hidden by the hair. Extremities

should be evaluated by palpating all long bones and joints and extending and flexing all joints to assess

proper range of motion. Crepitus or decreased range of motion may indicate prior trauma or degenerative

disease and should be followed up with imaging to better assess the problem. External genitalia should

be evaluated to check for lesions, discharge, testicular size/shape, signs of estrus, etc. Testes should be

palpated to assess symmetry and check for masses. A speculum can be used to perform a more

thorough vaginal and cervical exam in females. A rectal exam can assist with evaluating the pelvic

structures, including the prostate in males.

The animal’s weight should be determined at every opportunity and body condition assessed. Scales

built into the orangutan holding area are recommended, as orangutans are readily trained for voluntary

weight measurement. Regular, frequent body weight measurements helps greatly with nutrition and

health management. Currently, there is no formal body condition scoring system in place for orangutans.

Ex situ orangutans can easily become obese, with 46% of institutions reporting diagnosis of obesity in

orangutans over the past 10 years (Smith et al., 2012). Obesity should be avoided as it can contribute to

diabetes, heart disease, osteoarthritis, and other problems. Conversely, unexplained weight loss is

always cause for concern. Objective measurements for determining body condition scoring in orangutans

have not yet been validated, but are under development and will assist with weight management in the

future.

Dental examination can be facilitated by consultation with a dental specialist. Human dental charts

can assist with monitoring long-term problems or routine dental health. Dental cleaning can be

opportunistically coordinated with the routine physical examination, and supplemented by operant

conditioning that includes tooth brushing and flossing. Gingival tissues should be closely monitored for

development of periodontal disease. Low-dose, daily doxycycline has provided effective assistance in

resolution of this condition in humans, and is documented in great apes. Broken teeth or teeth with

exposed root canals should be evaluated for extraction or endodontic treatment (root canal) by a dental

specialist. Tooth extraction or modification is not an acceptable tool for social management and reduction

of conspecific aggression in the orangutan.

Blood is routinely collected from the femoral, brachial, or posterior tibial veins. The femoral vein is

located medial to the palpable femoral artery located in the inguinal region with the leg extended caudally.

Holding off this vessel to facilitate venipuncture is rarely required. Pressure should be applied afterward to

prevent hematoma formation. The brachial vein (ventral surface of the forearm) and posterior tibial vein

(caudal surface of the distal rear limb) are alternative sites for venipuncture and are the preferred sites for

IV catheters. Closed collection systems (e.g., BD Vacutainer

brand) are recommended for venipuncture

to reduce the risk of human exposure to blood. Needles should not be recapped prior to disposal in a

sharps container to reduce the risk of accidental needle sticks. Orangutans can be trained to insert their

arm into specialized arm sleeves to allow for venipuncture of the brachial vein while awake using operant

conditioning. Blood is used for complete blood count (CBC), serum chemistry panel, viral serology, blood

typing, and serum banking for all ages. For animals greater than 25 years of age, glucose and lipid

profiles, and cardiac biomarkers should be considered. Thyroid testing has not been validated in

orangutans. Results using human or veterinary assays appear to give questionable results, making

interpretation challenging. Additional research is needed before routine thyroid testing can be

recommended in orangutans.

Renal disease is one of the top causes of mortality in adult orangutans. Urinalysis can be important in

the assessment of kidney and bladder health and disease. Samples can be obtained via cystocentesis

during routine exams or collected noninvasively through operant conditioning training or from the

enclosure. The results are often highly complementary to the CBC and serum biochemistry profiles with

respect to providing information about urinary tract infections, kidney function, and diabetes.

Fecal samples or rectal swabs should be collected routinely to screen for Shigella spp., Salmonella

spp., and Campylobacter spp. For cases of diarrhea or other gastrointestinal disease, screening for

additional pathogens such as pathogenic E. coli strains, Clostridium spp. toxins, and Yersinia spp. should

be considered.

Radiographs of the thorax and abdomen should be taken, using both the lateral and

dorsoventral/anteroposterior views. The forelimbs should be extended from the view. Any skeletal areas

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of concern or prior injury should be imaged. Abdominal ultrasound should be routinely performed, with

rectal ultrasound or other advanced imaging scheduled when needed diagnostically.

Cardiac disease caused by myocardial fibrosis is a leading cause of death of orangutans (Lowenstine

et al., 2008). A complete cardiac assessment is important in early detection and treatment of this disease,

and should include echocardiography, EKG, and blood pressure measurement. Recording of these

dynamic imaging procedures will be helpful for long-term monitoring. Echocardiography should be

performed by an experienced echo technician using a machine capable of performing the appropriate

measurements. The frequency of echo exams is based on the age and clinical status of the individual

(Table 11). The Great Ape Heart Project (www.greatapeheartproject.org

) maintains updated

recommendations for cardiac evaluation as well as a network of specialists available for consultation. It is

strongly encouraged that data obtained from cardiac evaluations of orangutans be submitted to the

database maintained by the Great Ape Heart Project.

Table 11. Echocardiography recommendations for orangutans.

Age/Status Frequency of Exam Comments

Neonate Once During opportunistic neonatal exam to detect congenital defects

9 years

Once

Baseline exam

10–20 years Every 3–5 years

>20 years

Every 2–3 years

Cardiac disease

present

Case-based As needed to monitor and guide treatment

Respiratory infections are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in managed orangutans. In a

survey of zoo clinicians, respiratory disease was identified as the top most serious health problem faced

by managed orangutans. Many cases of chronic respiratory disease in orangutans can be subclinical and

persist for years without any visible clinical signs. The high frequency of respiratory infections in

orangutans makes diagnostic imaging of the sinuses, upper airways, air sacs, and lungs important for

screening for this disorder. Sinuses and upper airways can be evaluated using CT imaging and

radiographs. A Water's view position improves radiographic evaluation of sinuses in humans and is

recommended for orangutans if CT imaging is not an option. The air sac can be evaluated using CT

imaging, transdermal endoscopy, and ultrasonography. The lower airways can be evaluated using CT

imaging, radiographs, and bronchoscopy. CT imaging has proven to be the most sensitive imaging

modality for detecting changes throughout the respiratory tract, including those not readily visible on

survey radiographs. Since early detection is key to managing respiratory disease, medical imaging of the

respiratory tract is recommended at each routine examination.

Vaccination: An AZA Orangutan SSP-recommended immunization schedule is a common request to the

AZA SSP veterinary advisors. Unfortunately, there is no “one-size-fits-all” schedule. Many variables factor

into the decision of when to vaccinate an orangutan and against which diseases. These variables include:

● Accessibility to infants, juveniles and adults

● Tolerance of a dam to allow intervention with offspring

● Frequency of routine hands-on medical evaluations

● Infectious disease prevalence in the human population of the geographic area

● Philosophy of the veterinarian and animal managers

● Institutional commitment to training for infant and body part presentation and intramuscular

injection

● The design of the exhibit and an evaluation of the exposure risk (i.e., can the public throw things

to the orangutans?)

● The biosecurity protocols in place with the primate keeper staff (i.e., are staff all required to be

vaccinated? Are staff required to not work with apes if the staff have an infection?)

● Cost of vaccines

Rather than following a blanket vaccination schedule, institutions are recommended to evaluate each

of the above factors and create a vaccine schedule that is achievable and that is based on the diseases

of greatest exposure risk to that institution’s orangutans. Consultation with a local pediatrician and the

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local public health officials can assist in this process. For example, an institution does not have a training

program. It has strong staff biosecurity protocols, but the exhibit is open air and the public regularly

throws things to the animals. The local pediatrician tells you that there has not been a case of polio in

your city in over 30 years, but there is a high incidence of Haemophilus influenzae in the elementary age

population and the incidence of pertussis is on the increase. Given this set of variables, the institution

may choose to vaccinate against infections that could be “thrown” to the orangutans on food/objects by

the public, especially those diseases that are being seen regularly by local physicians and public health

authorities. The institution could forgo vaccination against blood-borne pathogens as well as those

diseases rarely seen in their geographic area. This is one example to demonstrate the thought process

and decision tree.

It helps to begin the decision tree with a review of the recommended human vaccination schedule.

Please refer to Table 12 below for the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended immunization

schedule. This table and the AAP website (http://www2.aap.org/immunization/izschedule.html

) are

excellent references for immunization information. The website provides product and administration

information, precautions, and a “catch-up” schedule for patients that have not received the full list of

recommended vaccines. Human guidelines should be followed when considering questions such as

immunization during pregnancy, adverse reactions, etc. Whenever possible, killed vaccination products

should be utilized when vaccinating orangutans, rather than modified-live (MLV) products.

Vaccines that are strongly recommended for all orangutan collections include annual seasonal

influenza, tetanus toxoid every 5–10 years, and Haemophilus influenzae Type B for youngsters. A one-

time pneumococcus vaccine is also recommended. Immunization against rabies is not routinely done in

humans, but should be considered in orangutans based on exposure risk in the exhibits.

Following the AAP immunization recommendations for all orangutan infants may not be practical or

appropriate for each situation. Hand-reared infants present a special situation where the infant is readily

accessible for frequent vaccination and has the highest risk of exposure to human diseases due to

increased direct exposure to human caregivers. Following the complete AAP immunization

recommendation should be considered in hand-rearing situations. The AZA Orangutan SSP does not

recommend repeated chemical immobilization of the dam in order to gain access to an infant solely for

vaccine administration unless there is an immediate threat of exposure. Institutions are encouraged to

adopt training programs and facility modifications that permit access of animal care staff to infants and

juveniles. Vaccination programs should be targeted to the collection’s risk-analysis as described above.

Table 12. The recommended human immunization schedule* which may be adapted for use in some orangutans

based on the individual risk assessment.

Immunization Abbreviation Dosing Schedule

Hepatitis B

Hep B

Birth; 1–2 mon; 6–18 mon

Rotavirus

2 mon; 4 mon

Diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis

DTaP

2 mon; 4 mon; 6 mon; 15–18 mon; 4–6

yrs.; every 10 yr.

Haemophilus influenzae type b

Hib

2 mon; 4 mon; 12–15 mon

Pneumococcal

PCV

2 mon; 4 mon; 6 mon; 12–15 mon

Inactivated poliovirus

IPV

2 mon; 4 mon; 6–18 mon; 4–6 yrs.

Influenza

influenza

Annually

Measles, mumps, rubella

MMR

12–15 mon; 4–6 yrs.

Varicella

12–15 mon; 4–6 yrs.

Hepatitis A

Hep A

12–24 mon; 2nd dose 6–18 mon later

Meningococcal

meningococ

cal

11–12 yrs.; 16 yrs.

Human papillomavirus

HPV

3-dose series, beginning at age 11–12

yrs.

* from the American Academy of Pediatrics 2014 Immunization

schedule, www.aap.org

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Parasite control: Routine monitoring for endoparasites by fecal flotation should be performed at least

twice yearly to monitor seasonal variation. Evaluations should include concentration techniques (e.g.

flotation, centrifugation, and/or sedimentation), direct fecal smears, and a Baerman’s sedimentation for

detection of Strongyloides spp. larvae. During quarantine periods, at least three fecal samples, taken at

weekly intervals, should be evaluated. Based on these results, and the baseline history of the group and

collection, specific antiparasitic treatment and management practices can be employed. Removal of fecal

material from enclosures, regular replacement of naturalistic substrates, disinfection of impervious

surfaces, and other husbandry practices can help reduce the environmental loads of parasites and assist

with disease management. As orangutans can be prone to coprophagy, daily removal of fecal material is

strongly recommended, and increased provision of environmental enrichment can assist with reduced

completion of parasite life cycles. When treating with antiparasitic drugs, references for human infections

are the preferred information source for treatment regimens. It is important to use effective doses, ensure

complete compliance by selection of appropriate vehicles, and repeat the dose at appropriate intervals.

Post-treatment monitoring is necessary to determine long-term treatment needs. Over-treatment or

ineffective treatment regimens can contribute to persistent parasite infections and possible drug

resistance. Note that complete elimination of endoparasites is often not the expected goal, but rather

control of clinical signs and reduction of endoparasitic numbers.

Parasites commonly found in managed orangutans include Balantidium coli, Strongyloides spp.,

Entamoeba coli, Giardia spp., coccidia, and oxyurids. Strongyloides spp. are a leading cause of mortality

of juvenile orangutans, but their significance is underappreciated by many zoo clinicians.

● The parasite exists in free-living and parasitic forms.

● The infectious larvae penetrate the skin, migrate through the lungs and other tissues, and then

localize in the intestine.

● The massive damage and hemorrhage caused by migration through the lungs and other tissues

may be rapidly fatal in young animals and there is no successful treatment.

● Detection of larvae in feces of affected juveniles is uncommon as clinical disease often precedes

the presence of adult worms in the gastrointestinal tract.

● Elimination of enteric infections in adults will help to prevent disease in the younger animals.

● Regular fecal examinations using the Baerman’s method and anthelminthic treatments are

recommended especially for pregnant, lactating and infant animals (Swenson, 1999;

McManamon et al., 2007).

● Prophylactic antiparasitic treatments targeting Strongyloides spp. should be strongly considered,

particularly in breeding groups. The most common prophylactic treatment regimen reported is

monthly ivermectin. However, other drugs and other dosing intervals have been used for this

purpose, and the relative efficacy of the various strategies has not been investigated. Using a

rotation of different classes of antiparasitic drugs should be considered in cases where parasite

drug resistance is suspected or a concern.

Balantidium coli is a frequently encountered protozoal parasite in orangutans. Most often it is a

nonpathogenic commensal organism, but it can cause significant diarrhea in some situations. The

organism is capable of forming cysts that are resistant to temperature extremes and routine disinfection,

making environmental decontamination challenging. For this reason, treatment of the animal will reduce

parasite loads when needed. Complete elimination of the parasite is not a realistic goal. Paromomycin

(Humatin

), tetracycline, doxycycline, metronidazole, and iodoquinol (Yodoxin

) have been used to treat

balantidiasis.

Infections with protozoa such as Giardia spp. and Entamoeba coli can result in clinical disease.

Flagellated protozoa such as trichomonads are often asymptomatic, but can occasionally result in clinical

signs. When indicated, protozoal infections can be treated with metronidazole, nitazoxanide (Ailinia

iodoquinol (Yodoxin

), or paromomycin (Humatin

). Combinations of antiprotozoal drugs may have better

efficacy when treating clinical disease. While coccidia and oxyurids have been reported in orangutans,

their clinical significance is not fully known.

Neonatal / maternal assessments: The initial neonatal – maternal health and bonding assessment is

critical, especially if there are indicators that things are not going well. Infancy is a critical period for the

social, physical and sexual development of orangutans and ideally all healthy infants should be left with

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their natural dam. Placement with a comparable ape surrogate for social rearing if maternal

rejection/neglect occurs is also an option.

Factors that influence the success of this period include maternal and/or infant health, maternal

experience, and group dynamics. If there are indicators of problems, veterinary and management teams

need to consider whether or not to remove the infant. There is substantial variation in mothering styles.

Most orangutan mothers will hold their infants in a ventro-ventral contact position for the first few months

of life, although this may be variable. Do not assume because an infant is not carried in this way initially

that something is wrong. Even in the case of primiparous mothers, care should be taken not to remove

infants prematurely since many mothers will improve in their mothering skills within the first few days of

the infant’s life.

Unstable group dynamics may add to a new mother’s stress levels and/or cause immediate danger to

the infant by trauma from the group or unintentionally from the stressed mother. Assessments of group

dynamics should be on-going throughout the pregnancy and periparturient period by experienced

personnel who know the animals in that group. Reintroductions of a dam and infant to their social group

(conspecifics) need to be carefully planned once their health status is stable. Integration back into a social

group may add to a new mother's stress levels and/or cause immediate danger to the infant. Infants

should begin to nurse within 4 to 6 hours after birth, but in some cases it has been observed to take up to

2 days. Some indicators of potential problems with the maternal/neonate bond and/or neonate are:

inappropriate maternal behavior (e.g., not cleaning the amniotic sac from the infant’s face); aggression

towards infant; ignoring the infant; inappropriate holding / roughness; no nursing by 72 hours. Some

females, especially first time mothers, will not experience adequate milk letdown until 24-72 hours

postpartum. If there are no signs of lactation (enlarged breasts and nipples, nursing) by 72 hours,

pharmacological stimulation of milk letdown can be attempted with oxytocin and / or metoclopramide. The

placenta should also pass fairly soon (<1 hour) after the birth. Most apes will sever the umbilical cord and

eat the placenta so close monitoring may be the only way to know that this has occurred.

At 48 to 72 hours after birth, if the infant has not been observed to do any nursing at all, then

discussions should include whether to intercede and evaluate the animal. At any time prior to this, if the

infant appears weak, dehydrated, unresponsive, or the mother starts ignoring the infant and leaving it,

action should be more immediate. Newborn orangutans are fairly hardy when healthy but may deteriorate

rapidly once compromised. The goal when pulling a compromised infant should be to stabilize the infant

as quickly as possible. As long as maternal neglect and trauma are not the issue, the infant should be

returned to the mother as soon as possible. At any time if neonates show signs of weakness, lethargy,

diarrhea, or dull eyes, they may deteriorate rapidly and should be assessed quickly, usually requiring

sedation of the dam to obtain access to the infant. Consultation with hand-rearing and surrogacy guides,

as well as with species experts and human neonatal care experts, is always warranted in these situations.

If infants are being mother-reared in exhibits where there is little to no exposure to natural, unfiltered

sunlight, they may be at an increased risk of developing metabolic bone disease (rickets). Cholecalciferol

(vitamin D3) is necessary for the absorption of calcium and proper bone development. Of the primates

that have been studied, breast milk does not contain sufficient concentrations of vitamin D. Therefore,

exposure to unfiltered sunlight during warmer months can be critical to infant development. If this cannot

be done, careful evaluation and supplementation of the infant with vitamin D3 may be needed

Neonatal examinations: Routine neonatal physical examinations should include screening for congenital

defects, trauma, neonatal disease, malnutrition, or maternal neglect. The timing and frequency of non-

emergent neonatal physical examinations varies widely between institutions. A risk analysis can be used

to determine the recommended interval between birth and neonatal examinations. This assessment may

consider factors such as mother’s experience and health, group dynamics, environmental factors, staff

experience, and collection health and institutional history. Most examinations of neonates will have to be

done after light or deep sedation / anesthesia of the mother. This carries with it the risks of accidental

drug exposure or trauma to the infant, as well as increased risk to the mother and the mother-infant bond,

and should not be undertaken lightly.

Indicators for “non-routine” neonatal examinations include any health risk to the infant or mother.

Reasons for infant illnesses and mortalities may include hypothermia, dehydration, gastrointestinal

illnesses, parasitism, nutritional imbalances (vitamin D deficiencies), congenital defects, trauma, and

hypoglycemia. Orangutan birth weights range from 1,420 grams (50 oz.) to 2,040 grams (72 oz.) with an

average of 1,720 grams (61 oz.,). Ape neonates have minimal body fat at parturition and may appear thin.

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Hypoglycemia and hypothermia can cause rapid deterioration in neonates so thermal and caloric support

are immediate needs.

Initial health assessments should include body temperature, weight, quick assessments tests

(consisting of a blood glucose evaluation, packed cell volume, and total solids), a protein electrophoresis,

a complete blood count, and serum biochemistry. Intravenous access can be achieved by catheterizing

either the cephalic or saphenous veins. Nasogastric feeding tubes are very easy to place in infants and

may be the best choice for feeding infants that have weak to no suckle reflexes. These tubes need to be

securely taped to the face and head to prevent the infant from pulling them.

Zoonotic disease control: Apes are unique among zoo species in that they can share nearly all of their

infectious diseases with people and vice versa. Proper training of staff, procedures for handling animals

and samples, proper facility design, and proper PPE (personal protective equipment) can all help to

reduce the risk of ape to human and human to ape zoonotic disease transmission. Primate handling

guidelines should be clearly defined for each institution. Restricted access into primate areas can reduce

disease transmission. Varying levels of PPE should be clearly defined for 1) entering a primate area, 2)

entering a primate enclosure, 3) having direct contact with a primate, 4) handling primate laboratory

samples, 5) handling primate food and enrichment, and 6) cleaning a primate area.

Zoonotic disease control is important for both orangutans and their caretakers. It is important to

monitor orangutan health regularly through a preventive medicine schedule for the safety of the

conspecifics and involved humans. Recommended guidelines on non-human primate handling,

developed by the AZA Animal Health Committee (AHC) and the American Association of Zoo

Veterinarians (AAZV) should be reviewed for institutional application. Vaccination prophylaxis for staff in

accordance with Centers for Disease Control (CDC) guidelines should be considered at each institution.

Humans that are ill should not work directly with non-human primates, or prepare their diets. When

this is not possible, personal protective equipment including facemask and barrier gloves should be worn.

Frequent hand-washing and a focus on personal hygiene should be a top priority. For daily food

management, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) methods should be instituted in the

central nutrition area and individual non-human primate kitchens. This includes handling, washing,

storage, preparation, and provision of foodstuffs to the animals.

Respiratory and gastrointestinal illnesses

are some of the most common diseases of orangutans, and prudent measures to prevent transmission of

such illnesses between staff and orangutans should be followed. A death of an orangutan from apparent

human herpes simplex 1 has been reported (Kik et al., 2005), so orangutan care staff who are herpes

simplex virus positive should be especially cautious to prevent transmission of the virus to the orangutans

in their care. There are also documented cases of Haemophilus influenzae, parainfluenza 3, influenza A,

metapneumovirus, and pneumococcal pneumonia infections in apes in zoological collections, some of

them fatal. The risk of reverse zoonosis is real and the risk should be thoughtfully mitigated through

exhibit design and good personnel practices.

Staff should be encouraged to work with an occupational health provider to monitor their own health,

remain vaccinated, and fully understand the risks of working with non-human primates. Staff veterinarians

can provide an information source to these physicians, particularly in times of increased human risk, such

as illness or during pregnancy. Veterinary care of orangutans is

similar to good medical care and preventive health of a human.

Routine evaluation of staff should be included in the health

assessment of these primates. Facilities housing orangutans

should adhere to all federal, state and other regulatory agencies

that define cleaning and decontamination procedures for the

institution. Care should be taken to monitor the potential toxicity

level of all cleaning materials and allow appropriate ventilation

and/or drying times as necessary.

Although routine practices that prevent transmission of

human pathogens from laboratory samples should be equally

effective with primate pathogens, many labs will not accept

primate diagnostic samples due to the zoonotic disease risk, so

be sure to check with the lab before shipping samples.

Animals that are taken off zoo/aquarium grounds for any

purpose have the potential to be exposed to infectious agents

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.5) For animals used in offsite

programs and for educational purposes,

the institution must have adequate

protocols in place to protect the rest of the

animals at the institution from exposure to

infectious agents.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(11.1.3) A tuberculin (TB)

testing/surveillance program must be

established for appropriate paid and

unpaid staff in order to assure the health

of both the paid and unpaid staff and the

animals.

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that could spread to the rest of the institution’s healthy population. AZA-accredited institutions must have

adequate protocols in place to avoid this (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.5).

A tuberculin testing and surveillance program must be established for paid and unpaid animal care

staff, as appropriate, to protect the health of both staff and animals (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.1.3).

Depending on the disease and history of the animals, testing protocols for animals may vary from an

initial quarantine test, to annual repetitions of diagnostic tests as determined by the veterinarian. To

prevent specific disease transmission, vaccinations should be updated as appropriate for the species.

All personnel who work directly with apes or who handle biomaterials collected from apes should

participate in institutional health programs such as annual staff vaccination against influenza and annual

staff testing for tuberculosis (TB). Staff TB testing includes skin testing for non-vaccinated individuals and

interview +/- chest radiographs for TB vaccinated individuals. Personnel with positive tuberculin reactions

on the skin test should follow local public health protocols for follow-up assessment. Tuberculosis

infections in people in the United States occur at a rate of 3.4 per 100,000 people and serve as a source

of infection for apes in zoos.

Regular tuberculosis skin testing (TST) is recommended for all primates, including orangutans, at the

time of the routine exam. A tuberculin syringe with 25–27 gauge needle is used to inject 0.1 ml of

mammalian old tuberculin intradermally in an atraumatic manner. The most common injection site is the

upper eyelid, although other sites such as the abdomen or forearm have been reported. The site should

be observed for swelling and erythema 24, 48, and 72 hours post-injection. Any swelling should be

considered a suspect reaction and be followed up with additional diagnostics. Orangutans have a high

incidence of false-positive reactions to the TST. Ancillary TB diagnostics performed during the initial exam

may be helpful in preventing a second immobilization for orangutans.

Comparative skin testing using PPD avium tuberculin followed by skin biopsies of the test areas at 72

hours has been described. However, interpretation of these results may still be subjective and

challenging, as specific charts or guidelines are not available for primates as they are for bovids and

cervids. Thoracic radiographs to evaluate the ape for thoracic lymphadenopathy, pulmonary granulomas,

or pulmonary mineralization may aid in achieving a diagnosis. Acid fast staining, mycobacterial PCR, and

mycobacterial culture can be performed on gastric or bronchoalveolar lavage samples to test for the

presence of pathogenic Mycobacterium spp. as well as non-pathogenic Mycobacterium spp. that may be

causing the false-positive TST. Gamma interferon testing (e.g. Primagam

) requires fresh heparinized

whole blood that is less than 24 hours old. The test is similar to a comparative skin test in that the results

are interpreted by comparing reactions to a positive control, a negative control, a Mycobacterium

tuberculosis-complex antigen, and a Mycobacterium avium-complex antigen. TB ELISA testing (e.g.,

Prima-TB Stat Pak

) has not been validated in orangutans. Initial results indicate that the addition of the

ELISA to the TST does not increase the sensitivity of TB screening. Since interpretation of the result is

still a challenge, this test cannot be recommended for orangutans at this time.

When presented with a positive TST, a combination of several additional diagnostics should be

employed to fully assess the animal. At this time, a thorough physical exam, CBC, thoracic radiographs,

gastric or bronchoalveolar lavage cytology/PCR/culture, fecal cytology/PCR/culture, and gamma

interferon testing are recommended. These tests may need to be repeated. Local and state regulatory

agencies may require notification, and may help by providing guidance for further diagnostics and

management. Federal regulatory agencies may require additional diagnostics or other measures when

importing orangutans with a positive TST.

7.5 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization

The need for capturing, restraining and/or immobilizing an

animal for normal or emergency husbandry procedures may be

required. All capture equipment must be in good working order

and available to authorized and trained animal care staff at all

times (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.3.1).

Manual restraint: Minor medical procedures (injection, tuberculin testing, and phlebotomy) may be

accomplished in infant orangutans using manual restraint if they are habituated to humans or trained to

accept such procedures. Adult orangutans may be restrained for hand-injection with the use of a

mechanical squeeze cage, and also may be trained through operant conditioning in protected contact to

present body parts for injection, phlebotomy, auscultation, palpation, ultrasound, blood pressure

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.3.1) Capture equipment must be in

good working order and available to

authorized, trained personnel at all times.

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measurement, or tuberculin testing. However, in adult animals, chemical restraint administered via

intramuscular injection through operant conditioning or by remote drug delivery systems is essential for

more invasive procedures.

Behavioral restraint: The use of operant conditioning to allow the orangutan to willingly take part in

certain types of exams, diagnostics, and other procedures is increasing in frequency. At many institutions,

orangutans are trained to present various body parts, sit on a scale for weighing, and participate in other

daily observations or management procedures. In addition, orangutans are commonly trained for

intramuscular injection, throat sac manipulation, abdominal ultrasonography, nebulization, blood

collections, cardiac ultrasonography, and blood pressure measurements. Achieving these training goals

requires institutional commitment and at times facility modifications depending on the procedure that is

trained.

Chemical immobilization/anesthesia: With proper planning, knowledge, equipment, and team

communication, anesthesia in orangutans can be successfully and safely performed.

Ideally the

orangutan should be isolated from other animals prior to anesthetic induction. This can be a challenge

with orangutans. Including shifting and isolation in the routine daily training program is recommended so

that isolation is not always associated with a negative event. The orangutan should be fasted from food

and water for at least 12 hours prior to anesthesia. If the fasting and social isolation are unsettling to the

animal, anxiolytic agents such as diazepam or midazolam can be used for stress relief. Ideally the

induction enclosure is heavily bedded, quiet, and is a place where the animal spends time during its

normal daily routine. For individuals that are prone to fecal ingestion and/or regurgitation, pre-medication

with metoclopramide and omeprazole will help empty the stomach and reduce gastric secretions prior to

anesthetic induction.

There are multiple injectable anesthetics that may be utilized for induction of anesthesia in

orangutans. Early recommendations included droperidol (1.0 mg/kg IM) combined with fentanyl (0.02

mg/kg IM), or phencyclidine (0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM), which is no longer available (Goltenboth, 1982; Wallach

& Boever, 1983). A recent review of anesthetic regimens used successfully in great apes lists seven

different drugs or combinations of drugs that may be used (Loomis, 2003). Most drug combinations utilize

either ketamine hydrochloride (either alone or combined with a tranquilizer) and/or tiletamine-zolazepam

(Telazol

). Ketamine combined with tiletamine-zolazepam has also been used successfully at multiple

institutions. Ketamine can also be combined with benzodiazepines (diazepam, midazolam),

acepromazine, or alpha-2 agonists (medetomidine, dexmedetomidine). Advantages of alpha-2 agonists

are a reduction of the ketamine dose, reversibility, and a more rapid recovery. Disadvantages of alpha-2

agonists in great apes include spontaneous arousals, which cause significant safety risks for the animal

and staff, and cardiovascular effects that include peripheral vasoconstriction, increased vascular

resistance, and bradycardia. Due to the cardiovascular effects of the alpha-2 drugs, they should be

avoided in animals with known or suspected cardiac disease or in patients for which a cardiac evaluation

is being performed. Note that the concurrent use of alpha-2 agonists with anticholinergic drugs such as

atropine and glycopyrrolate is contraindicated due to the significant hypertension and cardiac load that

results.

Table 13. Anesthesia protocols used in managed orangutans.

Drug

Induction

Method

Dose

Notes

Telazol

3–5 mg/kg

Expect induction within 5–8 minutes

Telazol/

ketamine

2–4 mg/kg

1–5 mg/kg

Reliable, smooth inductions; stable cardio pulmonary

function; good muscle relaxation

Ketamine alone

8–12 mg/kg

Causes significant hypertension; not recommended as the

sole induction agent.

Ketamine/

midazolam

IM +/- oral

5–10 mg/kg

0.1-0.2 mg/kg

Requires high doses of both drugs; duration will be

shorter than with Telazol; the midazolam can be given

orally ahead of time to reduce the anxiety of the

procedure.

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Drug

Induction

Method

Dose

Notes

Ketamine/

medetomidine

3–7 mg/kg

30–40 µg/kg

Unreliable depth of anesthesia. Spontaneous arousal can

occur, resulting in risk to both the animal and the staff.

Will cause cardio-pulmonary depression. This drug

combination at published doses (30–50 µg/kg med) is

commonly used, but is not recommended by the authors.

Ketamine/

midazolam/

medetomidine

5–8 mg/kg

0.1–0.2 mg/kg

10–15 µg/kg

Better than straight Ketamine/medetomidine or

ketamine/midazolam. The three-way combination with the

low dose of alpha-2 can smooth out the first hour of the

anesthesia. Expect bradycardia and bradypnea.

Table 14. Anesthetic maintenance protocols used in managed orangutans.

Drug

Maintenance

Method

Dose

Notes

Isoflurane

or sevoflurane

ET tube

To effect,

0.5–2.5%.

Both inhalants can cause a dose-dependent hypotension.

Doses that provide adequate blood pressure typically do

not provide adequate sedation. It can be a struggle to find

the perfect balance. The hypotension can be managed

with pressor agents such as ephedrine or dopamine. Or

other maintenance drugs in addition to the inhalant can be

used for supplementation if the depth of anesthesia is not

adequate (e.g., ketamine, propofol or fentanyl)

Propofol

To effect, 25–100

µg/kg/min

Provides smooth maintenance, especially when used in

combination with low levels of inhalant. Can be bolused

as needed if the animal becomes roused. Requires

experience using syringe infusion pumps. Monitor blood

pressure.

Fentanyl

1–3 µg/kg/hr

Provides smooth maintenance, especially when used in

combination with low levels of inhalant. A small amount of

ketamine can be added to the fentanyl infusion to further

reduce the need for inhalants. Requires experience using

syringe infusion pumps. Monitor blood pressure.

Attention to careful positioning and maintaining an open airway is essential. Some individual

orangutans (especially obese animals and some adult males) have anatomic challenges that complicate

intubation. In these individuals, the flaccid soft palate and walls of the pharynx can occlude the laryngeal

opening during inspiration, and adult male orangutans are especially at risk from asphyxia (Jones, 1982).

An elongated soft palate and/or epiglottis, mobile larynx, excessive salivation, and a propensity for

laryngospasm under ketamine anesthesia alone can make intubation difficult (Wells et al., 1990).

For longer diagnostic or surgical procedures or for individuals with respiratory disease, intubation is

highly recommended. If initial injectable anesthesia is inadequate for intubation, mask induction with gas

anesthetic or supplemental injectable anesthetic (e.g., ketamine, propofol) can be utilized to achieve

adequate anesthesia for intubation. Ideal positioning and technique can minimize these challenges and

facilitate successful intubation. The orangutan can be placed in lateral or dorsal recumbency. The head

and neck should be fully extended dorsally, which may require the head to be suspended off the end of

the exam table if in dorsal recumbency. The tongue should be extended and depressed using a long

straight or curved laryngoscope blade to visualize the glottis. Laryngospasm may be prevented by

spraying the vocal folds with 2% lidocaine or Cetacaine® spray, by administering intravenous lidocaine

(0.5 mg/kg) as a bolus just prior to intubation/extubation, or by nebulizing with lidocaine. The

endotracheal tube can then be inserted into the trachea. The trachea of the orangutan is surprisingly

short for such a large animal, and care should be taken to avoid inserting the endotracheal tube too

deeply and intubating a main-stem bronchus. Auscultation of all lung fields using positive pressure

ventilation and/or thoracic radiographs should be used to confirm tube placement. If pulse oximetry

readings are low during gas anesthesia in an intubated animal, the first thing to check is that the

endotracheal tube is not in too far. Often, withdrawal of the endotracheal tube by a few centimeters is

enough to return the blood oxygen saturation to normal.

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Other rare cases of airway-related complications have been described, including spontaneous

laryngospasm in unanesthetized youngsters under psychological stress, such as when the mother is

being immobilized. Intravenous diazepam administration was effective in reversing the situation in these

cases. Incidents of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pulmonary edema in orangutans

have been described (Kenny et al., 2003). This syndrome is a complication occasionally seen in humans,

particularly in those who experience temporary airway obstruction.

The most commonly used anesthetic maintenance agents are inhaled gases (e.g., isoflurane,

sevoflurane, desflurane). Inhaled gases provide safe and reliable maintenance, though they can cause

hypotension, which needs to be controlled. The goal is to find a level of inhaled gases that maintains

adequate anesthetic depth without unacceptable hypotension. If hypotension occurs, it is readily

managed with infusions of pressor agents such as ephedrine or dopamine. Another option is to add a

second injectable maintenance drug to the protocol so the inhaled gas can be reduced. Infusion of

propofol at a low rate intravenously can allow a significant reduction of the inhaled gas. Fentanyl alone or

combined with a very low dosage of ketamine can be used in a similar way. Such constant rate infusions

are preferred over higher levels of inhalants or frequent boluses of induction drugs. Using an

inhalant/infusion combination results in smoother maintenance and more rapid, predictable recoveries.

Monitoring physiologic parameters during anesthesia is essential to successful outcomes. At a

minimum, heart rate, respiratory rate and depth, and body temperature should be monitored on every

anesthetized orangutan. If equipment is available, it is highly advisable to monitor oxygen saturation via

pulse oximetry, blood pressure via a non-invasive cuff, and end-tidal CO

via capnography and serial

blood gas monitoring. Placement of an intravenous catheter and maintenance rates of a multiple-

electrolyte fluid for the duration of the procedure should be standard practice. This provides a port of

access in an emergency, and it controls hydration and blood pressure throughout a procedure.

Apes should be recovered in an area with soft bedding to protect them from injury if they climb and

fall before they are fully awake. They can be placed in lateral recumbency or in a partial sitting position.

Once the patient is properly positioned, all maintenance drugs can be turned off and any reversal drugs

given. Continue monitoring heart rate and respirations as long as possible.

Great apes show individual variation in their propensity to laryngospasm following extubation. Several

preventive measures can be taken to reduce the chance of this potentially life-threatening complication:

● Lidocaine (0.5 mg/kg IV) for an adult orangutan, a few minutes prior to extubation

● Lidocaine, 2 ml infused into the endotracheal tube prior to extubation

● Propofol, 20 mg (2 ml of 1%) IV for an adult, a few minutes prior to extubation

● Extubating early in recovery. Most veterinarians extubate when the patient is

coughing/fighting the endotracheal tube to ensure the patient can swallow any regurgitated

material. However, this is quite stimulating to the cords and predisposes to spasm and

regurgitation. In human anesthesiology it is common to extubate the patient when there is no

laryngeal reaction to the stimulation of removing the tube. For the apes, this should be done

with the patient in lateral recumbency to assist with the control of any regurgitated material.

With proper planning and equipment, anesthesia risks in orangutans can be anticipated and greatly

reduced. Techniques for reducing risk include:

● Weight control, to reduce obesity and consequent obstruction by the soft palate and

pharyngeal walls.

● Fasting from food and water at least 12 hours prior to the immobilization.

● The use of anesthetic protocols that provide good muscle relaxation, reduce laryngospasm,

and provide good cardiovascular support.

● Placement of the animal immediately into lateral recumbency, to maintain potential air sac

exudates below the level of the ostia and to minimize the risk of aspiration in case of

regurgitation.

● Intubation using a cuffed tube to control airway and ventilation.

● Maintenance of non-intubated animals in lateral recumbency if intubation is not an option.

● Having a laryngoscope, endotracheal tubes, suction apparatus, and oxygen close by during

induction.

● IV lidocaine (0.5 mg/kg) or topical lidocaine just before intubation and extubation to reduce

the potential of laryngospasm.

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● Having a stylet or tube exchanger available in the endotracheal tube to facilitate placement;

being prepared to try alternative positions and other methods to extend the neck for

intubation.

● Having emergency and reversal drugs pre-calculated and readily available throughout the

procedure.

● Institutional investment in anesthesia tools and physiologic monitoring equipment.

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7.6 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries

and/or Isolation

AZA-accredited institutions should have an extensive

veterinary program that manages animal diseases, disorders, or

injuries and has the ability to isolate these animals in a hospital

setting for treatment if necessary. The owner of an animal on

loan at a facility is to be consulted prior to any elective invasive

procedures, including permanent contraception.

Orangutan care staff should be trained in meeting the

animal’s dietary, husbandry, and enrichment needs, as well as in

restraint techniques. Staff should also be trained to assess

animal welfare and recognize behavioral indicators animals may

display if their health becomes compromised, however, animal

care staff should not diagnose illnesses nor prescribe treatment

(AZA Accreditation Standard 2.1.3). Protocols should be

established for reporting these observations to the veterinary

department. Hospital facilities for orangutan must have x-ray equipment or access to x-ray services (AZA

Accreditation Standard 2.3.2), contain appropriate equipment and supplies on hand for treatment of

diseases, disorders or injuries, and have staff available that are trained to address health issues, manage

short and long term medical treatments and control for zoonotic disease transmission.

Traumatic injuries: Traumatic wounds are an occasional result of accidents, normal social interactions,

or hierarchy disputes or introductions of new animals. Bite wounds are relatively uncommon in

orangutans compared with chimpanzees or gorillas, but the same principles of wound management apply

to all species. In most cases, wounds are superficial and even full-thickness skin wounds that have

exposed subcutis or muscle can be managed through topical wound care and allowed to heal naturally.

Indeed, surgical closure is only necessary for the most serious wounds, where serious mechanical

damage may need surgical attention or where a significant cosmetic defect may result from healing by

second or tertiary intention. If skin sutures are used, orangutans exhibit a high propensity for picking at

them and causing wound dehiscence. Whether closed surgically or allowed to heal as an open wound,

thorough lavage of a wound is helpful. Operant conditioning will usually allow presentation of body parts

for wound inspection and cleaning.

Social dynamic issues that may result in traumatic injuries from conspecific aggression can be

challenging to manage. Consultation with AZA SSP representatives is highly recommended to evaluate

all possible behavioral modification options available. Although chemical behavior modification has been

attempted in apes to relieve social stress and decrease trauma, the use of pharmacologic management of

behavior problems should be a last resort.

Respiratory disease: Respiratory tract disease is a commonly reported clinical syndrome in orangutans.

The syndrome is characterized by recurrent infections of the upper and lower respiratory tract including

sinuses, the laryngeal (submandibular) air sac, and/or lungs. A mix of opportunistic bacteria may be

cultured, including enteric Gram negative rods, Gram positive cocci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The

syndrome may present as acute/subacute illness (pneumonia, obvious air sac distension) or chronic

disease (rhinitis, bronchitis, dermatitis). The exact etiology of the syndrome is poorly understood and

specific risk factors have not been identified. Consultation with a pulmonologist and/or infectious disease

specialist is highly recommended. Consultants with experience treating cystic fibrosis patients are

especially helpful due to the parallels with this disease and chronic respiratory disease in orangutans.

Clinical signs: The acute/subacute form may include lethargy, anorexia, moist cough, laryngeal air sac

swelling, and pyrexia. There is usually a history of intermittent nasal discharge. The chronic form usually

presents with either a history of recurring nasal discharge and upper airway congestion (rhinitis) with

minimal signs of illness otherwise, or an intermittent cough that may have previously responded to

antibiotics but recurs following treatment. Less obvious signs include halitosis, chronic dermatitis along

the ventral neck and axilla that is exacerbated by self-picking (may improve temporarily with parenteral or

topical antibiotic therapy), and intermittent diarrhea (Fox, 2012).

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.3.2) Institution facilities must have

radiographic equipment or have access to

radiographic services.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(2.1.3) Paid and unpaid animal care staff

should be trained to assess welfare and

recognize abnormal behavior and clinical

signs of illness and have knowledge of

the diets, husbandry (including

enrichment items and strategies), and

restraint procedures required for the

animals under their care. However,

animal care staff (paid and unpaid) must

not diagnose illnesses nor prescribe

treatment.

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Anesthetic considerations: If the laryngeal air sac contains “fluid” secretions (more likely with the acute

form), the orangutan is at risk for aspiration of the fluid via the ostia that connect the air sacs to the

trachea. This risk increases with anesthesia and recumbency. Be prepared to suction, drain the air sac,

and/or maintain upright positioning until intubation. Laryngospasm/tracheal sensitivity from chronic cough

can be dealt with by using topical or intravenous lidocaine (0.5 mg/kg) to facilitate intubation. Delayed

anesthetic recovery following isoflurane may occur due to airway disease and decreased clearance of the

inhalant anesthetic.

General diagnostics include physical examination, computed tomography (of sinuses, air sac, and

lungs), radiographs, complete blood count, serum chemistry analysis, bronchoscopy, bronchoalveolar

lavage for cytology and culture, air sac examination (via aspirate, endoscopy, or exploratory surgery), and

biopsy. Bronchoscopy of all “normal” orangutans should be considered as it may reveal subclinical airway

disease in an individual. CT imaging is highly recommended as it is a more sensitive imaging modality for

evaluation of the respiratory system and can provide a more accurate assessment compared to survey

radiographs.

Physical exam findings: For the acute/subacute form, the following abnormalities may be present:

mucoid upper airway congestion; moist rales on auscultation, possibly with tachypnea; pyrexia;

dehydration; palpable “fluid” in the laryngeal air sac. For the chronic form, the following abnormalities may

be present: mucoid upper airway congestion; inflamed larynx/arytenoids if a chronic cough is present;

often auscultation is normal; superficial ulcerative dermatitis in a “ring” around the neck skin overlying the

air sac; palpable “pasty material” in the laryngeal air sac.

CT and radiographic findings: The acute/subacute form may be characterized by a bronchial to alveolar

pattern (bronchitis, pneumonia). A fluid line may be seen in the air sacs. Cardiac size/shape is usually

normal. The chronic form may be characterized by mild to severe bronchial pattern with areas of

bronchiectasis and possibly abscessation and/or consolidation. Right ventricular hypertrophy secondary

to pulmonary hypertension may be seen. Fluid accumulation in the sinuses or thickened irregular mucosa

may be seen in cases that include sinusitis.

Bloodwork: For all forms of the disease, bloodwork findings can be highly variable. Leukocytosis and

hyperfibrinogenemia may be present.

Bronchoscopy: For all cases, an obvious accumulation of mucopurulent material is usually present

throughout the airways. If a cough has been present, the mucosal surface of the arytenoids, larynx, and

proximal trachea may appear inflamed.

Bronchoalveolar lavage: For all cases, cytology and aerobic culture typically reveal neutrophilic

inflammation associated with numerous bacteria including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, miscellaneous

Gram negative enteric rods (e.g., Klebsiella spp.), and/or Gram positive cocci (e.g., Staphylococcus spp.,

Beta-hemolytic Streptococcus spp.).

Air sac examination and biopsy: Aspiration of air sac fluid using a 14 gauge needle is an option, but if

thicker material is present, it is far simpler to make a stab incision into the air sac and proceed with

endoscopy or exploration using a larger incision, which may be ultimately necessary for ostia closure

surgery or marsupialization. It is best to explore the entire laryngeal air sac including its lateral extensions

into the axillae. For acute/subacute cases, the skin over the air sac typically appears normal and the

cavity itself consists of one or two compartments lined by normal-appearing mucosa but filled with a tan-

green fluid. This discharge has cytology and culture characteristics similar to that collected via

bronchoalveolar lavage. On biopsy, the air sac mucosa is usually intact and consists of hyperplastic

epithelial cells with abundant goblet forms and ciliated superficial epithelium. Neutrophils and

mononuclear cells are found transmigrating the epithelial layers and infiltrating the subepithelial

connective tissue. For chronic cases, there is typically hyperkeratosis and superficial ulceration of the

overlying skin. The air sac cavity consists of multiple compartments divided by fibrous bands of scar

tissue and is filled with a pasty thick secretion. Cytologically, there is amorphous, proteinaceous material

containing cocci and bacilli with a flora similar to that of the lavage. Biopsy often reveals ulceration of the

epithelium with loss of cilia and fewer goblet cells. Mononuclear cells predominate with some

transmigrating and a lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate in the subepithelial layer (Joe Smith, DVM personal

communication 2016).

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Treatment:

Acute/subacute cases: Fluids should be given as needed to correct dehydration, acid/base, and

electrolyte abnormalities. Parenteral antibiotics should be given under anesthesia and continued orally for

a minimum of two weeks. Pending culture sensitivities, fluoroquinolones (e.g., levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin,

enrofloxacin) are often a good choice as they are usually effective against Pseudomonas spp. Antibiotic

choice should be adjusted as needed based on culture and sensitivity results. Long term antibiotics have

been used, but nebulization as “maintenance” therapy may be more effective (see below). Both ostia may

be closed surgically to prevent future aspiration of air sac contents. It is advised to use a double layer

closure with a purse-string suture and scarification to encourage scarring. The air sac should be

marsupialized to allow drainage of air sac exudate. Marsupialization can be performed by making a large

vertical or inverted-T incision in the gravity-dependent area of the air sac. Stainless steel sutures may be

considered to deter picking. Topical antibiotic administration via nebulization is recommended with acute

cases. Tobramycin (inhaled formulation, not injectable) or gentamicin (100 mg/ml large animal

preparation) at 5 mg/kg twice a day given via nebulization for one month have been used successfully.

"Maintenance therapy” with one week of nebulization per month or as symptoms recur has also been

used successfully in some cases. Oral antibiotic "maintenance therapy" has also been used in some

cases where the infection is concentrated in more vascular areas of the respiratory tract (e.g., sinuses,

lungs) (Joe Smith personal communication 2016).

Chronic cases: The ostia may be closed and the air sac marsupialized as above. Begin with a two-week

course of nebulization therapy followed by “maintenance” therapy. If the marsupialization site in the air

sac closes (which is more likely with chronic skin infections and ulceration of the air sac lining), consider

removal of the air sac entirely. Mucolytic agents and antihistamines are generally not recommended as

they are likely to dry the secretions and promote airway plugging. For chronic cases where significant

lung pathology and bronchiectasis are present, daily nebulized bronchodilators (e.g., albuterol,

arformoterol, formoterol) have been used to relieve some of the clinical signs.

Prognosis: The prognosis for respiratory disease syndrome in orangutans is generally fair to poor for

long term survival, especially if it occurs in a young animal. At best, antibiotic therapy suppresses the

bacterial infections and the eventual result will include bronchiectasis, pulmonary hypertension, and

recurring pneumonia.

Heart disease: Heart disease is one of the most common causes of mortality in all great ape species,

and orangutans are no exception. In orangutans, fibrosing cardiomyopathy is the most common

presentation of cardiovascular disease, and may be subclinical until the animal presents with sudden

death or unexpected anesthesia complications. The causative etiology and predisposing risk factors are

poorly understood at this time. When heart disease is detected antemortem, treatment for fibrosing

cardiomyopathy in apes generally starts with an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor and a

beta-adrenergic blocker.

Routine screening through echocardiography is strongly recommended following the frequencies

outlined in Table 11. Other diagnostics (e.g., EKG, radiographs, serum biomarkers, etc.) may be utilized,

but are not as sensitive as echocardiography in detecting changes in the hearts of orangutans. Anesthetic

drugs can significantly alter cardiac function and should be taken into consideration when interpreting

echocardiograms obtained from anesthetized orangutans. Alpha-2 agonists have a significant effect on

cardiac output and should not be used as part of the anesthetic protocol when heart disease is suspected

or when wanting to obtain a meaningful echocardiogram. Echocardiograms obtained on conscious

orangutans through operant conditioning are not affected by anesthetic drugs, but the quality of the views

and measurements are sometimes inferior to those obtained on the anesthetized orangutan. However,

conscious echocardiograms are still very useful for confirming data obtained from anesthetized

echocardiograms and for more frequent monitoring of suspected or confirmed cases of heart disease.

The Great Ape Heart Project (GAHP; www.greatapeheartproject.org) has been formed to research

causes, diagnostics, and treatments for heart disease in great apes. Institutions are encouraged to submit

exam data to the project for inclusion in a larger database, so that this disease can be better understood.

If echocardiograms are being obtained on conscious orangutans, the GAHP requests that data be sent

every 6 to 9 months. Veterinarians and cardiologists working with the GAHP are available to consult on

cases of suspected heart disease to help better interpret diagnostic results and determine the most

appropriate treatment options.

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Reproductive / pregnancy disorders: Reproductive disorders occur in orangutans, but no specific

trends or specific disorders of concern have been identified. Many of the same reproductive disorders

identified in orangutans are those described in humans and other apes. In a 2012 survey of AZA-

accredited institutions with orangutans, a wide range of disorders were reported from the 45 responding

institutions (see Table 14).

Table 14. Reproductive tract disorders reported by AZA-accredited institutions over a 10 year period. “Other

reproductive diseases” include a peri-ovarian abscess, irregular menses, reproductive-related aggression, and a

cervical cyst (Orangutan SSP Health Survey, 2012).

Reproductive Tract Disease

# of Institutions

% of Institutions

Dysmenorrhea

11.1%

Endometriosis

8.9%

Uterine Leiomyoma

6.7%

Infertility

4.4%

Menopause

4.4%

Vaginitis

4.4%

Endometritis

4.4%

Mammary Neoplasia

2.2%

Ovarian Cyst

2.2%

Uterine Cyst

2.2%

Uterine Neoplasia

2.2%

Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy

0.0%

Cervical Neoplasia

0.0%

Mastitis

0.0%

Ovarian Neoplasia

0.0%

Prostatic Neoplasia

0.0%

Prostatitis

0.0%

Testicular Infection

0.0%

Testicular Neoplasia

0.0%

Other Reproductive Diseases

8.9%

Problems during pregnancy are not common for orangutans, but they do occur. Potential problems

include those that would affect humans or other primates. Some examples are included in Table 15. As in

humans, gestational issues may be linked to concurrent health issues such as diabetes, obesity, and

hypothyroidism. Uterine, ovarian, and testicular neoplasia may also affect great apes, especially older

animals. In cases of severe endometriosis and uterine neoplasia, consultation with human oncological

reproductive surgeons may be warranted before attempting surgical removal.

Using operant conditioning to obtain routine uterine ultrasonography during pregnancy can help to

detect potential problems early. Measurements of the growing fetus such as crown rump length (CRL),

biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC), femur length (FL),

and humerus length (HL) can be obtained to help determine fetal age and ensure that growth of the fetus

is following expected trends. While orangutan-specific fetal growth curves are not currently available,

work is being done to standardize measurements into a central database to aid with average growth

curves for future use.

Table 15. Potential Complications of Pregnancy

Clinical Signs

Possible Complication

Diagnosis

Treatment

Bloody vaginal discharge (esp.

large amounts late in

gestation)

Placenta previa or

placental abruption

Ultrasound, physical

exam

Monitor closely, may need

emergency C-section

Bloody vaginal discharge early

in pregnancy

Miscarriage or normal

menses (never

pregnant)

Examine shed

tissue/blood for evidence

of fetal tissue

If miscarriage suspected-

examine female for

possible causes

Signs of labor that last more

than 6 hours

Dystocia, maternal

exhaustion

Observation, timing

between contractions,

signs of distress

Oxytocin, calcium,

supportive care, +/- C-

section

Sudden, intense pain and / or

Placental abruption

Physical exam,

Emergency C-section,

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Clinical Signs

Possible Complication

Diagnosis

Treatment

intense contractions.

Decrease in amniotic fluid

ultrasound

maternal support, possible

blood transfusions

Thick, creamy, odiferous, or

discolored vaginal discharge

Uterine infection

Physical exam,

ultrasound

Supportive care, antibiotics,

surgical intervention and tx

Lethargy or anorexia that lasts

for more than 6 hours, missing

a meal

Pregnancy Toxemia

Physical exam, urinalysis,

blood pressure, blood

work

Supportive care, +/- C-

section

Caesarian sections (C-sections) may need to be performed in cases of dystocia, prolonged

parturition, or for pregnancies in females that have undergone previous C-sections. When performing the

surgery, the incision into the uterus is important as it determines the risk of rupture during parturition of

subsequent pregnancies. In humans, a low transverse incision into the caudal uterus just under the

urinary bladder is associated with the lowest risk of future uterine rupture. However, it is not known

whether the anatomical differences in orangutans (i.e., deep pelvic canal with more caudal uterine

position) would allow such an incision to be possible. Previous C-sections in orangutans have not

employed a low transverse incision to date. For individuals that have had previous C-sections using a

uterine incision other than a low transverse incision, it is recommended that all subsequent pregnancies

be delivered via a scheduled C-section as well, to avoid the risk of uterine rupture. This requires very

close monitoring of estrous cycles and accurate calculation of due dates so that the surgery can be

performed at the appropriate time. Of the four C-sections reported to date, no complications with the dam

have been reported with the surgery. All four babies delivered via C-section were successfully

reintroduced to the dam, one at 12 days, one at 15 days, one at 10 weeks, and one at 8 months (Joe

Smith, DVM personal communication 2016).

Menopause has not been definitively documented in orangutans, although several individuals are

suspected to have undergone menopause. Menopause is defined in human medicine as 12 consecutive

months of acyclicity. There is also the inference that this acyclicity is not the result of pathology or

contraception, but is instead the result of normal reproductive tract senescence. Several problems exist

with being able to properly document menopause in orangutans: 1) Tracking estrous cycles can be more

challenging in orangutans compared with other species. Fecal hormone analysis is one proven method

that works well. Using Hemastix

on urine to test for the presence of blood is another, less specific option;

2) It would have to be demonstrated that the individual was cycling normally, and then stopped cycling for

12 consecutive months using a method above; 3) The female would have to not be under the influence of

contraceptives, as even the long-term effects of contraceptives long after discontinuation of their use

might call into question whether an individual’s acyclicity is a true menopause; 4) The reproductive tract

would have to be shown to be free from pathology (which would generally be done at necropsy) (Joe

Smith, DVM personal communication 2016).

Medical management of hand-reared infants: Consultation with hand-rearing and surrogacy experts

from the ape management group is warranted whenever an orangutan infant needs to be taken from its

dam for any period of time. If an infant should be separated from its natural mother and hand-reared until

re-introduction or placement with an appropriate ape surrogate, it is important to try to simulate age-

appropriate mother-rearing at all times. Maintaining maternal lactation during maternal-infant separation

can be difficult, especially if the separation time frame is extensive or the mother has health issues. Some

institutions have used fenugreek teas, herbal nursing remedies, and/or oxytocin and metoclopramide for

this purpose. Results have been inconsistent on whether these methods work for long-term lactation

stimulation. Keepers should monitor the mother for the potential side effects of these medications and

remedies, such as anxiety, agitation, depression, and gastrointestinal upsets. Some apes can also be

trained to allow the infant to nurse through the cage mesh. Breast pumps and manual stimulation of milk

letdown by keepers can also be attempted but may not be sufficient enough to maintain lactation over a

long-term time frame and may be dangerous for the staff.

Surrogacy rearing has proven very effective in orangutans in recent years. This is the ideal alternative

to mother-rearing. However, if medical or other conditions mandate hand-rearing, then the infant should

be raised with 24 hour a day, 7 day per week care staff. Ideally the infant “nursery” should be set up in

very close proximity to the maternal/surrogate’s group, with visual, auditory and olfactory stimulation for

the infant. If this is not possible, frequent infant-mother/surrogate visitations should occur. These can be

with or without tactile contact, depending on the situation and risk of injury to the infant and human

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Figure 2. Infant with nasogastric

feeding tube.

Figure 3. Haberman feeding

system® (sold as SpecialNeeds®

feeder).

caretaker. Some institutions have modified caging so that an infant “access” portal can be used for this

tactile contact in as safe a manner as possible.

Neonates requiring nursery care or treatment are very susceptible to hypothermia and need to be

kept warm, either in incubators or by being held close to the body (24-hour body contact is strongly

recommended), until they can maintain their own body temperature. An orangutan mother rarely will set

her infant down and human caretakers should mimic this behavior as closely as possible, as long as the

infant is healthy enough to do so. It is also critical to protect the infant, who may already be

immunocompromised, from zoonotic disease risks. Serious, even fatal, respiratory illness may occur in

hand-reared infants with prolonged close human contact, so the use of proper personal protective

equipment (face masks, gloves and clean clothes) and good health of the human caregivers cannot be

overemphasized. Minimizing the number of people who have close contact with the infant can also

minimize the risk of serious zoonotic infections for the infant. Human caregivers should have current

influenza, pneumococcus, tetanus, haemophilus, hepatitis B and varicella vaccines and have a negative

TB status confirmed within the past year, and should use face masks

and gloves at all times when in contact with the infant. If the caregivers

develop any signs of illness, or are near other humans (especially

human infants and young children) that are ill, they should refrain from

working with the orangutan infant until all signs of illness are resolved

(Joe Smith, DVM personal communication 2016).

Medical management of compromised neonates: The most

common illnesses associated with orangutan neonates are

hypothermia, hypoglycemia, dehydration, electrolyte imbalance,

enterocolitis, respiratory disease, urological disturbances, and sepsis.

Critically ill infants may need to be removed from maternal care for

extensive periods of time and may need intensive care. If these infants

are too sick to be held by human caretakers, then incubators can be

used. When infants are not being held, a surrogate “ape mother” in the

form of a plush animal or other soft material should be used for

psychological comfort if possible. Make sure that the surrogate has

high quality “hair” in order to avoid ingestion by the infant and the

potential for subsequent impactions. Human and orangutan neonates

share many similarities, so consultation between veterinary specialists

and human neonatologists, pediatric nutritionists, and neonatal intensive care nurses may be valuable

when dealing with sick neonates. Intravenous catheters, umbilical catheters, nasogastric feeding tubes,

nasal oxygen delivery systems, and other specialized interventional medical equipment made for human

infants may be ideal for use in these infants.

Bottle-feeding compromised neonates can be especially difficult and

the risk of aspiration can be significant. Nasogastric feeding tubes are

easy to place and may be very beneficial for nutritional support until the

infant is stabilized enough to suckle (Figure 2). Once neonates are ready

to transition to a bottle, using a Haberman feeding system

(sold as

SpecialNeeds

feeder; Medela, Inc. Breastfeeding U.S., 1101 Corporate

Drive, McHenry, IL, USA 60050), which is designed as a feeder for

infants that are having difficulty sucking on a nipple or swallowing

formula correctly, is advantageous (Figure 3). The feeder's design

enables the feeder to be activated by the tongue and gingival pressure,

imitating the mechanics involved in breastfeeding, rather than by

sucking. A one-way valve separates the nipple from the bottle. Milk

cannot flow back into the bottle and is replenished continuously as the

neonate feeds. A slit valve opening near the tip of the nipple shuts

between jaw compressions, preventing formula from flowing too quickly.

Medical management of geriatrics: With the increased medical

concerns of geriatric animals, maintaining a schedule of routine physical

examinations is of continued and possibly increased importance even

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when the increased anesthetic risk is considered. For example, cardiovascular diseases are a significant

cause of morbidity and mortality in managed great apes (Loomis, 2003) and routine examination of the

heart becomes increasingly important in the geriatric animal.

Degenerative arthritis, particularly involving the knee joints, is commonly seen in orangutan

necropsies and older, obese males show a higher incidence (McManamon et al., 2007). With the stoic,

energy-conserving nature of many orangutans, many cases of arthritis are likely to be missed and careful

examination of the joints should be part of all routine examinations. Affected orangutans have been

managed using NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) or glucosamine supplements at several

institutions. Enclosure furniture and design may need to be altered to accommodate older and arthritic

animals. In all ages, maintenance of a healthy body weight and regular exercise should be encouraged.

Signs of pain that may be present in orangutans with osteoarthritis include:

● Could be NONE!

● Decrease in appetite

● Decrease in activity

● Changes in behavior

● Holding/pointing to painful area

● Sensitive to touch

● Lameness/decreased use of limb

● Radiographic changes (may not correlate well with pain)

● If the clinical situation would cause pain in a person, assume it also causes pain in primates

Treatment options for controlling pain that may be caused by osteoarthritis in orangutans:

● Opioids (primates are sensitive)

● Steroids (consider side effects)

● Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

● Tramadol

● Gabapentin/pregabalin (for neuropathic pain)

● Nutraceuticals

● Physical therapy/exercise

● Environmental modifications

● Acupuncture

● Laser therapy

Therapeutic agents: The similar size and physiology of great apes and humans makes human

formularies and medical texts excellent resources for dosage recommendations for orangutans and other

apes. In the United States, because no medications are specifically approved for use in orangutans, all

veterinary or human pharmaceuticals are therefore prescribed for them in an “extra label” fashion.

Veterinarians in the United States may legally utilize any human or animal drug that is FDA-approved for

use in animals or humans, although these medications have not been formally evaluated for scientific

evidence of safety or efficacy in exotic animals.

Hereditary diseases: A complete listing of the hereditary disorders of the orangutan has not been

compiled. However, it is likely that this species is susceptible to many of the known inheritable disorders

found in other great apes and humans. These should be investigated, and appropriate literature and

veterinary and human medical specialists consulted on individual cases.

Behavioral indicators of compromised health: Orangutans who are experiencing health problems may

display any of the following: increased lethargy, reduced social activity, and lack of appetite. In general,

any sign that if displayed in a human indicates ill health should also apply to orangutans. It is important to

note that like all wild animals, orangutans will mask outward signs of pain and illness. If there are

observable physical indicators of illness, it is likely that the individual orangutan is experiencing high

levels of discomfort.

Staff should report any signs of disease to supervisors and/or facility veterinarian as per the individual

facility protocol. Animal care staff should be specific about the observed potential indicators of

compromised health and make it clear if they are concerned that the situation is an emergency.

Euthanasia: As caregivers for the animals residing in our zoos and aquariums, it is vital that we provide

the best care possible for them until the time their health deteriorates to a point where euthanasia is the

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most humane treatment, or the animal dies on its own. Euthanasia should be considered for progressively

deteriorating quality of life, intractable disease without cure, or irreparable trauma. Prior to euthanasia, a

deep plane of anesthesia should be achieved. Options for humane euthanasia include barbiturate or

sedative overdose as dictated by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Guidelines on

Euthanasia and the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV) Guidelines for the Euthanasia of

Nondomestic Animals.

AZA-accredited institutions must have a clear process for

identifying and addressing orangutan animal welfare concerns

within the institution (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.8) and

should have an established Institutional Animal Welfare

Committee. This process should identify the protocols needed for

animal care staff members to communicate animal welfare

questions or concerns to their supervisors, their Institutional

Animal Welfare Committee or if necessary, the AZA Animal Welfare Committee. Protocols should be in

place to document the training of staff about animal welfare issues, identification of any animal welfare

issues, coordination and implementation of appropriate responses to these issues, evaluation (and

adjustment of these responses if necessary) of the outcome of these responses, and the dissemination of

the knowledge gained from these issues. It is recommended that institutions maintain libraries containing

relevant animal welfare literature and provide funding for staff to attend conferences, workshops and

other professional development opportunities to expand their training and knowledge of orangutan

welfare.

AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums provide superior daily care and husbandry routines, high quality

diets, and regular veterinary care, to support orangutan longevity. In the occurrence of death however,

information obtained from necropsies is added to a database of information that assists researchers and

veterinarians in zoos to enhance the lives of orangutans both in their care and in the wild. Necropsies

should be conducted on deceased orangutans to determine their cause of death, and the subsequent

disposal of the body must be done in accordance with local, state, or federal laws (AZA Accreditation

Standard 2.5.1). Necropsies should include a detailed external and internal gross morphological

examination and representative tissue samples from the body organs should be submitted for

histopathological examination. The AZA and American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV) website

should be checked for any AZA Orangutan SSP-approved active research requests that could be filled

from a necropsy.

A standardized necropsy protocol for great apes is provided on the AZA Orangutan SSP web site

(http://www.orangutanssp.org/uploads/2/4/9/9/24992309/necropsy_wkst_nov10.pdf

). This protocol is an

evolving document and is subject to revision. Pathology reports should be submitted to the AZA

Orangutan SSP veterinary advisors for evaluation and comparison with other deaths and pathology. With

any orangutan death, a full necropsy (gross and histopathology) is necessary to advance understanding

of the species' medical management, baseline anatomy, and for appropriate care of the remaining group

members.

Especially important is a thorough examination of the respiratory tract including sinuses, air sac, and

lungs, because infection of these areas is common in orangutans. Prosecutors are encouraged to

perform bacterial cultures on organs suspected of infection, and to collect blood at necropsy and bank the

serum for possible future use in viral serology or toxicology. Additionally, the brain and spinal cord should

be examined, as significant CNS pathology can easily be missed if these organs are not examined.

Similarly, endocrine glands should be thoroughly evaluated, as well as the aorta, peripheral arteries, and

peripheral nerves. These organs can easily be missed when the examiner is rushed, but should be

examined and sampled just as major organs such as heart, lung, liver, etc. Particular attention should

also be paid to the coronary arteries for evidence of atherosclerosis, and to the vermiform appendix, as

appendicitis has been reported in orangutans.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.5.8) The institution must develop and

implement a clear and transparent

process for identifying, communicating,

and addressing animal welfare concerns

from paid or unpaid staff within the

institution in a timely manner, and without

retribution.

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Chapter 8. Reproduction

8.1 Reproductive Physiology and Behavior

It is important to have a comprehensive understanding of the reproductive physiology and behaviors

of the animals in our care. This knowledge facilitates all aspects of reproduction, artificial insemination,

birthing, rearing, and even contraception efforts that AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums strive to

achieve.

In male great apes there is a large range of variation within each species for the onset of maturation

and the age when full adulthood is reached. Because of this wide range of individual variation and

because puberty is reached more rapidly in managed and provisioned animals, it is difficult to isolate a

“normal” growth pattern. For orangutans, this is particularly true – they have the widest range in variation

in timing of maturation among the apes and there is evidence that extended arrest of secondary sexual

development occurs in some males, further complicating the picture of their growth patterns. Along with

gonadal maturation and the onset of fertility, in male orangutans the maturation process includes the

development of marked secondary sexual features. These changes include: large cheek flanges, a

specialized laryngeal pouch, distinctive hair growth including a beard and mustache, large body size due

primarily to increased muscle mass, and a distinctive odor (Graham & Nadler, 1990).

Most commonly, the first visible signs of puberty in male orangutans are changes in facial

morphology. Typically, this begins at 7 to 9 years of age, but may happen as early as 5 or as late as 17

years of age. Commonly, males are fully mature by the age of 14 (with functioning primary sexual organs

and marked secondary sexual features). However, many males may look “subadult” for years longer.

“Unflanged” is the term applied to males with arrested secondary sexual maturation. Depending on the

individual housing situation, along with morphological changes, adolescent male orangutans may show

marked behavioral changes. They may become more aggressive and more sexually active, including

increased incidence of forced copulation. Both ex situ and in the wild, the maturation process can take as

little as a few months or as long as 10 years (MacKinnon, 1979; te Boekhorst et al., 1990).

According to Maple (1980), it has been “unwritten zoo lore” that the “complete development of

secondary sex characteristics seems to be suppressed” in young male orangutans housed in proximity to

adult males. However, if the dominant male is removed, the suppressed male begins to develop

immediately. Importantly, it has been noted that “the transformation from subadulthood to full adulthood in

male orangutans is sudden and dramatic”, and in the wild it takes only a few months (MacKinnon, 1979).

According to zoo lore, aggressive human keepers may cause the same suppression effect (Maple, 1980).

To document Maple’s anecdotal data, Kingsley (1982) studied the gonadal endocrinology of 20

managed male orangutans ranging from 1 to 16 years of age housed in European zoos. Early morning

urine samples were collected from each animal and analyzed by radioimmunoassay. Flange growth was

also measured. One year into the study, a pair of cohabiting males—a dominant, flanged male and a

subordinate, unflanged male—were separated and isolated from one another. Upon separation, the

subordinate male developed secondary sexual features. Kinglsey found that testosterone levels in

suppressed, unflanged males were intermediate between unflanged juvenile and flanged adult males.

High testosterone is required for flange development, which commences a few months after an initial

testosterone rise. Kingsley concluded that the presence of a dominant, flanged male indeed suppresses

flange growth in subordinate, unflanged males for a period and that this is not a permanent condition. Te

Boekhorst et al. (1990) have confirmed that the arrested phenomenon also occurs in wild male

orangutans. Thus, morphological and behavioral differences between dominant and subordinate male

orangutans have been observed both ex situ and in the wild. The arrest of secondary traits is not

permanent, but is known to last up to 7 years in managed environments (Kingsley, 1988) and for 10 years

or more in the wild (te Boekhorst et al., 1990).

Secondary sex characteristic suppression could be because of pheromones, or olfactory signals,

transmitted between males, auditory signals, or threats of aggression between males. The odor, sight, or

sound of a dominant male may act as a stressor to subordinate males by constantly reminding them of

the dominant male’s proximity. Developmentally arrested adolescent male orangutans appear to have a

distinct hormone profile as compared to other age classes of males (Maggioncalda, 1995a, 1995b). Their

hormone levels indicate that these males are likely to be fertile, but they do not have necessary levels of

hormones for full growth of body size or secondary sexual characteristics. They also have lower levels of

stress hormones than do males of a similar age that are developing secondary sexual characteristics.

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Given this, it is likely that there is an olfactory or auditory cue that triggers males to suppress

development, rather than prolonged stress or the threat of aggression.

Males that remain subadult in appearance but are fertile and can sire offspring represent a

reproductive strategy that has not been documented in any other mammal, with the possible exception of

male mandrills (Wickings & Dixson, 1992). Arrested males may have an advantage when compared to

fully adult males who are also fertile but suffer the metabolic costs of high testosterone and high rates of

intrasexual aggression and injury (Dufty, 1989), along with the demands necessary to attain and maintain

a large body size. Although dominant males have access to more food sources and fertile females,

subordinate males can also gain access to females and potentially sire offspring by being submissive and

unobtrusive (Galdikas, 1985). Subordinate males avoid injury from agonistic encounters with dominant

males and can travel more easily in trees, allowing them to escape predation and to follow females.

Arrested males also avoid metabolic costs associated with maturation and high testosterone. Arrested

males thereby may defer the costs and benefits of dominance until a time when a dominant male

becomes old or dies and they can replace him as a range-holder (Galdikas, 1981).

Based on the endocrine data together with behavioral information, it appears that male orangutans

have evolved a flexible developmental timeline, whereby subordinate males may postpone secondary

sexual development in order to avoid aggression and stress, but retain timely primary sexual maturation

and achieve reproductive success.

Females show no obvious secondary sexual characteristics (Graham, 1981). Female sexual maturity

occurs at about 7 to 10 years of age. Wild orangutan females do not typically give birth until

approximately 12 to 15 years of age. In managed environments, females have given birth as early as 7

years of age. The earliest documented age of parturition for a managed female is 5 years and 3 months

(Markham, 1994). The first menstrual period, menarche, marks the onset of sexual maturity. Adolescent

sterility has not been documented in this species. Females should be monitored carefully as they

approach sexual maturity if they are in a potential breeding situation.

Adolescent females do exhibit sexual behavior. The AZA SSP recommends that at 5 ½ years of age,

ALL juvenile females housed in a reproductive situation (this includes being housed next to males when

separated by mesh) should be monitored for cycling. This can be accomplished through daily urine

collection with Hemastix

for menstrual blood. Hemastix

can be ordered through most pharmacies or via

the Internet. Once the female initiates menstrual cycling, she should be contracepted or otherwise

prevented from becoming pregnant until she has reached social maturity and has been recommended for

reproduction by the AZA Orangutan SSP steering committee.

The length of the menstrual cycle is calculated from the onset of menses in one cycle to the onset of

menses in the next cycle. Menstrual cycles have been reported from 23 to 33 days in length in mature,

managed individuals (11–22 years old) with a mean of 27.8 days (Nadler, 1981). Most sources list normal

cycles between 28 to 30 days, but the sample sizes are small. Markham (1990) noted that menstrual

cycles tend to be longer in the first 2 years after menarche. She also documents the irregular cycles of

“Mawas,” a female orangutan in her late 40s. At 48 years of age, Mawas was not menopausal but her

cycles were shorter than those of younger conspecifics. Menses typically lasts from 1 to 4 days. The flow

of blood is slight and only seldom apparent. Hemastix

are the most reliable method of detecting menses.

A clean urine sample should be used since contamination with feces may indicate a false positive from

occult blood (Wells et al., 1990). Cycle status should be regularly recorded for all potentially breeding

females. It is a good idea to keep a chart of the cycle status.

Mating behavior: In general, adult females prefer to mate with the dominant flanged male. Females may

initiate consortships with dominant males at times of high ovarian activity, but they generally resist mating

attempts by unflanged males and subordinate flanged males unless there is little or no cost associated

with the mating. Unflanged males attempt to mate with adult females, although access may be restricted

by flanged males, infrequent encounters, and the risk of association with the female. However, unflanged

males may forcefully copulate with females, and they are able to sire infants this way. Flanged males

attempt to exclude all other males from receptive females and try to maximize the length of consortships

with receptive females. Flanged males that are not dominant may attempt to force copulations with a

female. Consortships between an adult female and dominant flanged male can be initiated by females at

the time of estrus. Consortships can last between a few hours and several months, but 5–6 days is

average (Rodman & Mitani, 1986; Nadler, 1988; Fox, 2002).

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Forced copulations and consortships have both been documented in zoo-housed orangutans (Nadler,

1994). These strategies were not exclusive of each other within a pair, but rather pairs have been

observed exhibiting a mixture of both strategies (Maple, 1980). In a managed setting, most copulation is

initiated by males and involves chasing of the female. In contrast, female-initiated copulation attempts

generally involve no chasing. When the length of copulation bouts with respect to the presence or

absence of chasing was compared, copulations preceded by a chase were significantly longer than those

which were not initiated by a chase (11.5 minutes compared to 2.3 minutes; see Maple, 1980). The chase

element is generally characterized as being aerial and involving several circuits of the animals’ enclosure.

The chase component does not appear particularly aggressive nor does it seem to induce fear in the

female. Following a chase, the female submits or is wrestled down by the male and generally lies on her

back on the floor or in an elevated location. The male then approaches her, inspects her genitals, and

then mates with her (often in a crouching or sitting position). Although the predominant position during

copulation has been reported as ventro-ventral, many varied positions and postures have been observed,

including dorso-ventral (with the female lying on her stomach or standing quadrupedally), or with both

animals suspended, i.e., hanging from climbing structures. The duration of copulations is extremely

variable, but can last up to 15 minutes (Maple, 1980).

Although less often observed, female orangutans do exhibit proceptive behavior. The following

proceptive behaviors have been observed in managed females: hand-genital contact, mouth-genital

contact, rolling the male on his back, dorso-ventral and ventro-ventral mounting and pelvic thrusting

(Maple et al., 1979). These proceptive behaviors appear to correlate with ovulation (Maple et al., 1979;

Nadler, 1988; Fox, 2002).

Since all aspects of orangutan behavior are directly related to adaptations in their wild environment,

duplicating these conditions ex situ can be challenging. For example, many managed orangutans have

been and are maintained in larger social groupings than their wild counterparts appear to adopt, yet

orangutans appear to be adaptable to changes in social structure under artificial living conditions. Many

natural behaviors are often misunderstood or may be exhibited out of context in a managed setting (i.e.,

males forcibly copulating with females or adult males throwing and banging objects in their enclosures

when they are long calling). Therefore, knowledge of wild orangutan behavior is essential in helping to

interpret managed interactions and can be useful in overall species management.

8.2 Assisted Reproductive Technology

The practical use of artificial insemination (AI) with animals was developed during the early 1900s to

replicate desirable livestock characteristics to more progeny. Over the last decade or so, AZA-accredited

zoos and aquariums have begun using AI processes more often with many of the animals residing in their

care. AZA Studbooks are designed to help manage animal populations by providing detailed genetic and

demographic analyses to promote genetic diversity with breeding pair decisions within and between our

institutions. While these decisions are based upon sound biological reasoning, the efforts needed to

ensure that transports and introductions are done properly to facilitate breeding between the animals are

often quite complex, exhaustive, and expensive, and conception is not guaranteed.

AI has become an increasingly popular technology that is being used to meet the needs identified in

the AZA Studbooks without having to re-locate animals. Males are trained to voluntarily produce semen

samples and females are being trained for voluntary insemination and pregnancy monitoring procedures

such as blood and urine hormone measurements and ultrasound evaluations. Techniques used to

preserve and freeze semen have been achieved with a variety, but not all, species and should be

investigated further.

Besides physical issues, AI procedures also bring issues of ownership of semen and/or the animal

being inseminated. Very often, semen from multiple animals may be used. As with any natural (physical)

breeding, the rights of the owners of all materials and animals involved should be considered. Appropriate

transaction documents (and loan agreements, if appropriate) should be fully completed before AI is

attempted. To date, only one successful artificial insemination procedure has occurred in orangutans

(Forde, 2014).

8.3 Pregnancy, Egg-laying/ Parturition

It is extremely important to understand the physiological and behavioral changes that occur

throughout an animal’s pregnancy.

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Conformation of pregnancy: The AZA Orangutan SSP recommends the best method to confirm a

pregnancy is the presence of labial swelling. This physiological sign of pregnancy is easily observed. The

labia majora begin to swell about 2 to 4 weeks after conception. The swelling is very pronounced and

easy to see. The labia swell abruptly over a 1- to 2-day period and may continue to enlarge through the

remainder of the pregnancy. The swelling does not disappear until after parturition (Sodaro, 1988). Labial

swellings vary in appearance and size (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Examples of labial swelling.

Photos courtesy of C. Sodaro.

Pregnancy test kits: Human test kits can be used to further confirm pregnancy, but consistency of

results has been mixed. A wide variety of results have been obtained using these tests which confirm

human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in urine. The following kits are able to cross-react with orangutan

chorionic gonadotropin (orCG):

• OvuQuick

(but not in 3

Trimester)

• ICON

II HCG (but not in 3

Trimester)

•

Cards Q.

(but not in 3

Trimester)

• Abbott TestPack Plus

(but not in 2

Trimester)

• E.P.T.

(not in 2

or 3

trimester)

• Clear Blue Easy

• One Step

• Osco

The human test kits are readily available in drug stores or via the Internet, but they are not

standardized to guarantee cross-reactivity between ape and human chorionic gonadotropins. However,

past experience indicates that they are usually close. It should be noted that many of the tests show a

cross-reaction between HCG and luteinizing hormone (LH), so a single positive test actually may be

detecting the LH released during ovulation. Therefore, Hemastix

should be used to detect whether blood

is present. Ovulation test kits, including OvuQuick

have been successfully used at some institutions.

Testing should be performed with fresh, morning urine, if possible. The urine should not be contaminated

with any soap or foreign materials.

Additional methods to confirm pregnancy:

Ultrasound: Ultrasound can be a useful diagnostic tool to confirm pregnancy. “Jill,” an orangutan at the

Kansas City Zoo, was trained to present her abdomen for weekly ultrasounds performed by zoo staff

(Moore, 1999). This female was also trained to allow cooperative blood draws. During this pregnancy,

urinary hormone levels were analyzed. This was the first instance in which all three testing procedures

were used simultaneously to correlate the progression of an orangutan pregnancy (Suedmeyer, 2002).

The use of ultrasonography to monitor the progress of pregnancies is becoming increasingly routine.

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Physiological sign: Labial swellings appear and are maintained or may increase in size throughout the

gestation period. Approximately one month after conception, changes begin to occur in the mammary

area. The nipples begin to swell and the mammary glands enlarge. One zoo reports that a pregnant

female’s hair appeared thicker.

Behavioral changes: Reported behavioral changes include: loss of appetite, lethargy, and personality

changes. Females have been reported to self-nurse prior to parturition. Pregnant females may continue to

participate in sexual behavior. Maple (1980) described the behaviors of female orangutans in the Berlin

Zoological Gardens to be rather unpredictable and sometimes aggressive during the first months of

pregnancy. A female at the one zoo tended to act more docile and subdued during the first trimester in

three of her pregnancies. Behavior among group members should be monitored carefully and changes in

behavior should be recorded in the animal’s records. In the later stages of pregnancy, females may

appear agitated, restless, and lethargic, avoiding interactions with conspecifics. Loss of appetite and

constipation have also been noted.

Medical problems associated with pregnancy: Problems related to pregnancy in orangutans are

varied. Abortion, placenta previa, fetal septicemia, dystocia, and maternal/fetal incompatibility have been

reported. As in humans, diabetes or obesity can be associated with significant medical complications

during pregnancy. These cases and other related disorders are covered in Medical Management of the

Orangutan (Wells et al., 1990). A prenatal ultrasound examination with routine blood tests to check

hematology/serum chemistry status can provide valuable information to confirm the health of the mother,

fetus, and normal placental placement. It also allows potential problems (such as hypocalcemia or

anemia) to be identified and corrected proactively.

Gestation: Gestation ranges 245 + 12 days. This is an average of 35 weeks or 8.16 months. Twinning

does occur, at least in ex situ, but is a rare event (less than 1% of recorded managed births

internationally).

Diet changes and vitamin supplementation: Proper nutrition during pregnancy is essential for the

health of both the mother and the developing fetus. Intake of a well-balanced diet should be assured, with

special attention to adequate levels of protein, energy, calcium, vitamins, and minerals (especially folic

acid). The appropriate quantity of food is best determined by observation of the animal, maintaining

adequate conditions and avoiding excessive weight gain (obesity can cause significant medical problems

during pregnancy and labor). As a general rule, the developing fetus is so small that a significant increase

in food is not necessary until lactation begins (lactation can double or triple metabolic needs). Oral

supplementation with any standard human prenatal vitamin is recommended during pregnancy and

lactation.

Social housing during pregnancy: It is not necessary to alter a pregnant female’s housing situation

during pregnancy unless there is a risk to the female or her infant. Separation training, however, should

be undertaken well before parturition in the event that the female and infant need to be separated from

usual companions. Some zoos separate pregnant females from adult males overnight as the parturition

date nears. Adult males have been present during delivery. There are known instances of adult males

exhibiting aggression or interfering with an infant immediately post-partum. Some males have become

aroused and attempted to copulate with a female during labor (Caine & Mitchell, 1979). It is

recommended to separate a pregnant female once labor begins to allow an uninterrupted birth process.

Zoo staff familiar with the adult male’s behavior during the birthing process should make the decision

about how the pregnant female should be housed during labor and delivery. The pros and cons of this

decision should be carefully weighed prior to implementation. If females with infants have been separated

from their social group, they should be housed with auditory and visual contact to their group. After birth,

reintroduction to conspecifics should take place based on the institution’s postpartum management plan.

Animals should be monitored closely during this period.

Development of a birth management plan: It has been well documented in the literature that the

mother-infant relationship forms the basis of nearly all social behavior in animals. A lack of conspecific

mothering during infancy has been linked to deficiencies in both sexual and maternal behavior in

adulthood (Maple, 1980). Management practices that involve the removal of the infant from its mother at

birth or at a very young age (under 6 years) should be avoided.

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Thorough planning for an impending birth is critical to minimize the necessity of an infant being

removed from its mother for hand rearing. All institutions should contact the AZA Orangutan SSP

Husbandry Advisor, and/or the Ape TAG Birth Management Committee to discuss a birth management

plan for their female as soon as the pregnancy is confirmed. These sources can also be contacted for

examples of birth management plans that can be used as templates. As of 2011, all institutions receiving

a breeding recommendation receive a copy of the newly developed birth management manual.

A sound birth management plan addresses the social, reproductive, and medical history of the

pregnant female. It also establishes the development of an action plan driven by review of the orangutan

involved. This also includes staff assignments, determination of due date, prepartum plan, birth-day plan,

and any other considerations relating to the birth. A birth management plan helps to prepare staff and

animals for the impending birth. All animal care staff involved with the pregnant female should familiarize

themselves with the birth management plan well in advance of parturition.

History of the expectant female: One of the most important aspects of developing a sound birth

management plan is to know the complete history of the female involved. This can be accomplished

through a careful review of house records, records from prior institutions housing the animal, and review

of the APES profile. An in-depth review will allow staff to make appropriate preparations to promote

maternal care and ensure the well-being of the infant. A pregnant female may fall into one of the following

categories:

• Nulliparous female who has had no prior exposure to infants. Considerations: If the female is

under 10 years old, and/or was hand-reared, it is recommended to begin a positive reinforcement

training program to promote maternal care giving skills. Note that females younger than 14 years

are not recommended for breeding, per AZA SSP policy.

• Nulliparous female who has been present at a birth(s) and/or who has had exposure to females

with infants who exhibit proper maternal care. Considerations: this animal may have a better

chance of being a competent mother due to exposure to proper infant care in the past.

• Multiparous female who has successfully raised infants. Considerations: This female should

continue to care for future infants unless there is a change in her health status or the infant has

medical concerns.

• Multiparous female whose infant required intervention. Considerations: The nature of the

intervention required will dictate your next birth management plan. Review discussion of

intervention types in the next section.

Discussion of intervention types: Females who consistently neglect their offspring should be considered

for a positive reinforcement maternal care giving skills training program. Careful evaluation of past

circumstances surrounding neglect should be closely reviewed. The following information should be

included in the review:

• Housing situation during prior birth(s)

• Review conspecifics present for prior birth(s) and any behavioral interactions that may have

impacted the female’s behavior toward the infant

• Age of parturition

• How the female was reared (dam-reared, hand-reared, peer-reared, foster-reared, surrogate-

reared, or unknown)

• Were the appropriate preparations made for the birth (bedding, diet, environmental conditions)?

• Was she in good health?

• Was the infant healthy?

• Was the birth difficult?

By closely reviewing all of the above, caregivers may be able to determine factors that affected the

unsuccessful rearing of past infants as well as implement changes for the future. If a maternal skills

training program cannot be implemented or is not successful, consideration can be given to placing the

infant with a foster or surrogate mother. Contact the AZA SSP Coordinator well in advance of the

parturition date to discuss this option.

Females who have shown competent mothering skills but failed to allow nursing with previous

offspring should be considered for a positive reinforcement training program that focuses on promoting

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nursing. A training program of this nature may include breast desensitization and manipulation of breasts

with a breast pump prior to parturition.

There are reports of females who consistently neglect or abuse their offspring. If possible, these

individuals should be housed in an environment that may promote and/or improve their maternal skills.

Females who are known to abuse their infants require special monitoring and considerations immediately

postpartum. If a female has rejected past infant(s), a positive reinforcement training program that

promotes infant care-giving behaviors should be initiated during pregnancy. This type of training program

has been successful at many institutions. Contact the AZA Orangutan Husbandry Advisor, or the Birth

Management Committee, for information on how to set up a maternal training program.

Labor and delivery: Reports on the length of labor vary. Graham-Jones and Hill (1962) noted that labor

lasted for approximately 25–30 minutes for a primiparous managed orangutan. When twins were born,

labor lasted approximately 3–4 hours for the first twin and about another hour for the second (Heinrichs &

Dillingham, 1970). Labor for a previously managed, primiparous orangutan at one facility lasted 3 hours.

A discharge of amniotic fluid was observed 5 minutes before birth occurred. During the birth, the female

adopted a squatting posture and whimpered (DeSilva, 1972). In the first stage of labor, there is usually a

clear vaginal discharge. The female may show signs of discomfort and her activity level increases.

Stage two encompasses the birth process. The female may assume a lateral- or dorsal-recumbent

position. The frequency of contractions increases and the infant’s head appears. In one observed birth,

the female rested on her right forearm and knee and grasped the infant’s head with her left hand. She

appeared to be assisting in the expulsion of the infant, which took 13 minutes (Schwartz, 1988). In

another described birth posture, the female placed her head on the floor, leaning on her lower arm and

elbow. Her legs were extended so that her pelvis oriented upward. There is one reported instance of a

male assisting a female in this posture during parturition (Schwartz, 1988). The infant is normally born in

a head-first presentation. Breach presentations have been reported and successfully delivered.

The third stage is the expulsion of the placenta. The placenta may be passed immediately after the

second stage of birth but is usually passed within a few hours. The umbilicus is broken by the female

chewing through the cord. Females typically consume the placenta. If the female does not chew through

the umbilicus or consume the placenta, continue to closely monitor the umbilical site. Staff should also

carefully monitor the position of the umbilical cord in relation to the infant’s body to ensure it does not

constrict the infant’s body in any way. Any placenta tissue that is not consumed and is easily retrievable

should be submitted in a sterile container to veterinary staff for examination.

Contractions may continue to be observed post-delivery. Vaginal bleeding may also occur for several

days after delivery. This should be reported to veterinary staff. But as long as the amounts are small, the

discharge is not abnormally odiferous or discolored, and the animal acts healthy, this is usually normal.

Problems associated with birth and delivery: Difficult birth (dystocia) is not common in orangutans, but

it can occur. Veterinary staff should be prepared for any eventuality, and should be alerted when birth is

expected. Ideally, a consultant MD with obstetrics experience should be available if complications occur.

The AZA SSP Veterinary Advisors can also be consulted. Pre-existing medical problems (such as urinary

infection, diabetes, hypothyroidism, obesity, or malposition of the placenta) can complicate pregnancy

and delivery. These cases and other related disorders are covered in Medical Management of the

Orangutan (Wells et al., 1990). A few institutions have recent experience with performing Caesarian

sections and reintroducing infants.

Physical appearance of the newborn: Newborn infants are typically wet and appear small in size. Many

zoo staff are surprised at the small size of an infant orangutan. Reported infant weights vary dramatically.

Seitz (1969) reported the average birth weight of seven male infants to be 1,740 grams (61 oz.) (range

1,590 to 2,015 grams [56 to 71 oz.]). Five females in his study ranged from 1,420 to 2,040 grams (50 to

72 oz.) with the average being 1,694 grams (60 oz.). The average birth weight of the 12 infants total was

1,720 grams. The head might be slightly misshapen from passage through the birth canal. The rib cage is

prominent and the abdomen may appear sunken. The newborn may not defecate or urinate immediately.

Often the first bowel movement of the newborn is dark in coloration. Typical feces of a mother-reared

infant are pale yellow in color.

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Figure 5. Male genitalia and umbilical area at 48 hours of age.

Photo courtesy of C. Sodaro

Post-partum behavior: Immediately post-partum, females have been known to insert their fingers into

the infant’s mouth or suck on the infant’s face to remove mucus from the oral and nasal cavities. In one

instance, a female was seen breathing into the infant’s mouth (Graham-Jones & Hill, 1962). Females may

inspect the ano-genital area of the newborn. Sexual behavior exhibited by the females towards an infant

may include: dorsal-dorso mounting, oral-genital inspection, and manipulation and insertion of fingers into

ano-genital areas.

After giving birth, a female may spend more time than usual resting. Her appetite may be increased

or decreased. Females carry infants continuously after birth. Both ex situ and in the wild, the infant may

be carried in a side ventral position, or on top of the head or upper back. Inexperienced females may

carry an infant upside down or in a seemingly awkward position. If the infant appears to be healthy,

gripping with hands and feet, and is nursing regularly, this does not present a cause for concern.

Lactation and nursing: Before birth, milk production and even milk expression (called “milk let down”)

can occur. Self-nursing during pregnancy and after birth has been observed frequently and has not been

correlated with any medical problems to date (although the phenomenon has not been well-studied).

Although milk is typically present immediately after birth, the breast tissue (especially in primiparous

animals) may not appear full or engorged for a few days. Colostrum (the first milk, which contains

essential immunoglobulins for protection against disease), as well as milk, are typically thin and watery in

appearance.

One institution has successfully used the drug Reglan

to stimulate lactation in a female orangutan.

This drug has been used to increase maternal milk supply in humans (Wight, 1995). Some zoos have had

mixed results with the use of Reglan

, including unpredictable agitation in the dam.

Nursing bouts are normally frequent and of short duration. In the wild, nursing takes place during

short rest periods on the part of the mother. The intervals, on average, are 40 minutes apart during the

first year of life (Rijksen, 1978). Suckling usually occurs within 4 to 6 hours after birth. Occasionally up to

2 days will pass before nursing takes place. The decision to remove an infant from its mother should be

based on the physical condition and behavior of both the infant and the mother.

Diet and supplementation during lactation: Energy needs typically double or even triple over the

period of lactation. The diet composition should remain balanced, and should be gradually increased in

correlation with the animal’s general condition, weight, and activity. It is essential that adequate levels of

total calcium, with a ratio of at least two parts calcium to one part phosphorus, be provided throughout

lactation.

Infant death: If the infant is stillborn or dies during birth or shortly after, the female may attempt to carry

or nurse the dead infant. Try to remove the infant as soon as possible for necropsy, but retrieving the

baby from the mother should not be done forcefully or negatively. It is advisable during this time to keep

the animals out of public view.

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8.4 Birthing/Hatching Facilities

As parturition approaches, animal care staff should ensure that the mother is comfortable in the area

where the birth will take place, and that this area is “baby-proofed.” This area does not need to be a

specially designed facility; the use of existing exhibit or off-exhibit space will suffice as long as appropriate

updates are made to ensure infant safety and privacy following birth. The use of existing, but modified,

spaces will also minimize stress to expecting mothers as they will already be familiar with these areas and

shifting to these areas will be part of a normal routine. It is not recommended that females be physically

transferred to new areas for birth. The time mother-infant pairs stay in this space exclusively will be

dependent on the health and the skill-level of the mother. If concerns or questions exist it is

recommended to contact the SSP. This will be dependent on the institution’s birth management plan.

Females should be given as much choice as possible to move around and choose the birth location. It is

recommended to heavily bed the enclosures the female gives birth in with at least 8 to 10 inches of

bedding. Bedding types may include: timothy hay, straw, shredded paper or wood wool. Providing a deep

layer of bedding ensures that the female will be comfortable. Bedding can also prevent falling-related

injuries, and help prevent the infant from lying on a cold surface if the birthing female does not carry the

infant, delaying hypothermia.

8.5 Assisted Rearing

Although mothers may successfully give birth, there are times when they are not able to properly care

for their offspring, both in the wild and in ex situ populations. Fortunately, animal care staff in AZA-

accredited institutions are able to assist with the rearing of these offspring when deemed necessary. A

goal of the AZA SSP is to promote maternal care of infants. This can be accomplished with a variety of

methods including: maternal training for females that have been identified as potential risks to exhibit

inadequate maternal care, infant reintroduction to a dam at a later date, and surrogate mothers.

Successful mothering comprises learned behaviors and it is thought that females are more likely to rear

successive offspring if given as much time as possible to establish a relationship and perform some

maternal care with the present infant. However, in some cases, due to the health and welfare status of

the mother and/or the infant, the need to hand-rear an infant may be unavoidable. Post-partum

observations by experienced staff are essential to carefully evaluate the relationship between mother and

infant. Prior to the birth, staff should familiarize themselves with mother/infant behavior so they are able to

accurately assess the animals’ behavior. Monitoring with minimal disruption is recommended (e.g., by the

use of remote cameras if possible). The female is likely to respond positively to familiar caregivers’

encouragement. The decision to hand-rear an infant should be based on the health status and behavior

of both the mother and infant.

Frequent evaluation of the above criteria by animal care staff is essential. If the infant’s physical

condition is questionable, such as dehydration, hypoglycemia/weakness, hypothermia, and/or if the

mother exhibits complete disinterest or abuse that is determined to be life threatening, removing the infant

may be justified. Other potential problems include lack of adequate maternal milk production or let down,

mastitis, or critical maternal illness/weakness. As a general rule, infants do not need to nurse for

approximately 12 hours after birth, but the infant should not appear to be weak or unresponsive. Signs of

infant weakness may include:

• Not being able to hold its head up (head dropping back).

• Eyes glazed in appearance.

• Loss of grip on mother – infant should have a strong grip and be able to hold on without support

from the mother.

• Appearance of skin folds which may indicate dehydration.

• Loss of ability to suckle properly – during nursing, infant fails to move jaws while on nipple.

• Excessive crying (a potential indication of inadequate milk intake).

In some cases, transient hypothermia, hypoglycemia, and/or dehydration can be quickly evaluated

and medically treated (warmth for hypothermia; subcutaneous fluids for dehydration; subcutaneous fluids

and dextrose for hypoglycemia), and the infant may be successfully re-introduced to its mother. Such

situations require careful evaluation, teamwork, and constant attention to ensure that the problems are

adequately resolved.

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AZA Orangutan SSP hand-rearing guidelines: It is recommended that a birth management plan be

developed prior to the birth of an infant (see above). Hand-rearing should only occur in cases where an

infant has a health problem and/or as an interim step prior to reintroduction to the dam or surrogate

mother. It is NOT recommended to remove an infant from its mother at birth or a very young age. 24-hour

a-day, 7-day-a-week continual care is necessary until reintroduction to the dam or surrogate is possible.

Caregivers should be dedicated to caring for and carrying the infant continually. This is essential for the

psychological well-being of the infant. Institutions that are unable to provide 24/7 care should contact the

AZA SSP Coordinator for further direction. Caregivers should be familiar with, and emulate, orangutan

behavior. The AZA SSP Coordinator should be contacted immediately if hand-rearing is necessary.

From field studies, MacKinnon (1974) observed that during the first year of life an infant is in almost

permanent bodily contact with its mother, clinging tightly to her side as she travels, or clambering over her

in an exploratory fashion when she pauses to rest or feed. Although these infants see and often sample

the foods their mothers find in the forest, they are nourished almost entirely from her milk. By the second

year, the infant is less dependent. Although never far from its mother’s side, the infant is rarely carried

and is capable of finding some of its own food. By the third year, MacKinnon (1974) states, the youngster

is actively searching for playmates. Juveniles remain with their parent until the birth of a new infant.

Galdikas (1981) reports inter-birth intervals of 5 years, although longer intervals have been reported more

recently. From then on, the close bond between mother and offspring starts to change. Juveniles,

particularly males, gradually wander farther from their mother and spend increasing periods alone. Young

females are less adventurous and often stay with their mother and play with the new infant. They likely

learn the fundamentals of infant care at this time.

As successful mothering includes learned behaviors, maternal contact for young orangutans should

be maximized. During maturation, it is recommended that individuals be given the opportunity to observe

infant-rearing, if possible. It is thought that females lacking in maternal skills are more likely to rear

successive offspring if given as much time as possible to establish a relationship and perform some

maternal care with their present infant. It has been well documented in the literature that the mother-infant

relationship forms the basis of nearly all social behavior in many species of mammals. A lack of

conspecific mothering during infancy has been linked to deficiencies in both sexual and maternal behavior

in adulthood (Maple, 1980). However, as with many mammals, the behaviors that are learned and those

that are innate have yet to be determined.

Intervention types (when to hand-rear):

If the infant can be returned to the dam in the immediate future: When an infant has been removed from

the dam due to medical issues affecting either animal, full consideration should be given to reintroduction

of the infant when the animal’s medical condition improves (or as soon as possible). If, in order to remove

the infant, the dam needs to be sedated, her lactation status should be checked. If the medical condition

of the infant is stable, the infant should be allowed to nurse from the sedated female. This will help

stimulate further lactation and encourages natural infant suckling. If the infant is not able to nurse from the

sedated female, breast milk should be collected and stored to feed at a later time. This can be done via

manual expression or a breast pump. Be aware that milk collected during the beginning stages of

lactation can appear thin and watery. It does not have the typical appearance of cow’s milk.

The length of time an infant has been removed from the dam is one consideration that factors into

planning a reintroduction. Other considerations are the ability for the infant to nurse naturally once

reintroduced to the dam and the lactation status of the dam. Bottle-fed infants may have difficulty in

returning to a natural “nursing” situation unless the reintroduction is planned for the immediate future. This

is because it is much easier for an infant to drink milk from a synthetic bottle nipple than to nurse naturally

from the dam’s nipples. Switching from a man-made nipple to the breast is also a change in the infant’s

daily routine. During this time, the infant should be cared for in front of the dam’s enclosure. Contact the

AZA Orangutan Husbandry Advisor for additional recommendations.

If the infant cannot be returned to the dam in the immediate future, but a reintroduction at a later date

is possible: The earliest an infant has been successfully reintroduced to her dam is 12 days of age. A

positive reinforcement training program should be initiated for both the infant and the dam. If possible, the

infant should continue to nurse from the dam’s breasts through the enclosure front. If this is not possible,

the goals of the training program should include the infant learning to drink from a bottle (and eat solid

foods if old enough) while housed in the dam’s enclosure and the dam to allow the infant to be bottle fed

(or eat solid foods) from the care giving staff.

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If, due to the health status of the infant or the dam, an introduction cannot take place in the immediate

future, follow the guidelines for hand-rearing in this chapter. Animal management plans should focus on

24/7 care and emulating maternal behavior. Facilitating dam/infant contact should be encouraged as

much as practical.

If the infant cannot be returned to the dam, and the infant will go into a surrogate situation: When the best

rearing option for an infant is a surrogate mother, follow all general hand-rearing guidelines in this

chapter. It is a rare situation for an infant to be sent to a surrogate mother that is lactating. With most

recent surrogate situations, the infant was hand-reared at the birth institution before being sent to a

surrogate mother at another institution. Refer to Surrogate Mother Case Histories in the Orangutan

Husbandry Manual for more information on animal management plans and preparations for surrogacy. It

is strongly recommended to not raise the infant in a “nursery” situation. It is preferable to raise the infant

in the orangutan area so the infant can maintain at least visual, auditory, and olfactory contact (and

possibly even tactile contact dependent on the adult animals’ personalities). Caregivers should carry the

infant on a 24/7 basis.

Once the decision has been made to hand-rear an infant, it should be kept warm and medically

evaluated. A dextrose stick can be used to determine if the infant has glucose, which will assist in

determining if the infant has nursed. Ensley (1981) recommends preliminary care be given to the

umbilical cord and examination of the placenta. An unhealthy or abnormal placenta will assist in

identifying if an infant may require specific additional medical care. The neonate’s body temperature

should be stabilized at about 37 °C (98.6 °F). If the infant’s body temperature is below normal, the AZA

Orangutan SSP recommends having a caregiver hold the infant close to their own body while placing a

hot water bottle or heat source between themselves and the infant, or provide skin-to-skin contact. Take

the infant’s temperature every 15 minutes to closely monitor body temperature changes until the infant

stabilizes its body temperature. The ambient room temperature should also be increased until the infant’s

temperature is normalized.

Other methods may be used to normalize the infant’s body temperature. Although these methods will

help to normalize body temperature, they do not provide the infant with the necessary physical contact to

ensure proper psychological well-being. The AZA Orangutan SSP strongly encourages 24/7 care of all

infants. Less desirable alternatives include:

• Incubator – ensure that temperature of incubator is continually monitored. If the infant should be

housed in an incubator, constant contact should be given by the caregiver by putting their

hands/arms through the arm holes at all times.

• Radiant heaters that are commonly used for human infants in maternity wards.

• A crib with a heating pad or a hot water bottle covered with bedding. The best type of heating pad

to use is the type with a thermostatic control that displays the actual temperature.

• With all of these options, provide a shaggy surface or artificial surrogate (stuffed animal) for the

infant to cling to in an upright position. By placing the infant on its abdomen, it is able to cling to a

comfortable surface with ease. Neonatal medical disorders are described in The Medical

Management of the Orangutan (Wells et al., 1990).

Once the infant’s condition has been assessed, a feeding regime can be implemented. Initially, a 5%

dextrose solution or an oral electrolyte solution (Pedialyte

) is recommended until a stable suckling reflex

is noted (usually during the first few feedings). This will prevent any accidental inhalation of the formula

while adjusting to the bottle and nipple. This milk formula (or breast milk) should be diluted with dextrose,

an electrolyte solution, or distilled water, when first introduced to the diet and increased gradually, to

prevent digestive upsets. The goal should be to feed 110–120 kcal/kg body weight in 24 hours. Standard

milk- or soy-based formulas are 20 kcal/oz. (0.67 kcal/cc) and should be mixed (if using the powdered

formulation) according to the label directions. There are also formulas available with higher calorie counts

(24 kcal/oz.; easily digestible, hypoallergenic, low-iron, etc.) that can be used with infants that are not

growing well, and/or are having formula-tolerance issues. Infants initially can be offered formula (or breast

milk) at a ratio of 20% to 25% of their body weight divided by the number of daily feedings, or feedings

should approximate 100 ml formula/kg BW/day (24 hours), increasing to about 200 ml/kg/day by the

third

week; or 120 kcal/kg BW/day. The amounts should be monitored and adjusted based on animal

acceptance, hunger level, and weight gains. Care should be taken not to overfeed as this can cause

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gastric distension, vomiting, and aspiration. On average, the infant should be accepting full strength

formula within 4 to 7 days. Neonates require feedings at 2 to 3 hourly intervals or on demand. As the

infant matures, the frequency of feedings can be reduced as the amount fed per meal and the overall total

increases. Positioning of the infant during feedings should approximate its natural position and burping

should be encouraged during and after feeding.

Human infant formulas are recommended. The most commonly used are Similac

, Enfamil

, and

SMA

. Prosobee

and Isomil

, which are both soy-based formulas, have been used for infants suspected

of having allergies to milk protein or lactose. Human infant bottles with regular nipples are recommended

(orangutan infants tend to need a larger nipple than would be presumed; the mother’s nipples are large

and the infant’s mouth is similarly large), and should be sterilized before use. A vitamin supplement may

be added to the formula from two weeks of age. Formulas with added iron can cause constipation.

Consult veterinary and/or nutrition staff for advice on iron-fortified formulas. Reactions to formulas may

include enlarged axillary and inguinal lymph nodes, mild fever, negative or stalled weight gain, abdominal

discomfort (fussiness), diarrhea, melena, and hematochezia.

Probably the most important lesson learned when hand-rearing an ape infant is to adjust the routines

based on daily assessment of the infant. There is no one formula that will guarantee success every time

for every infant. There are several published plans that may be used to determine the amount and

strength of formula to feed and every infant will grow at a slightly different rate and tolerate slightly

different amounts and types of formula. Always determine what works best for the individual animal

through daily weighing and physical evaluation of temperature, alertness, fecal and urine production, etc.

Stay flexible but avoid rapid and premature changes to formulations or feedings since this can also cause

gastrointestinal stress.

After approximately 3 months of age, the feeding frequency can start to taper off. If the infant appears

hungry between feedings, feeding smaller volumes more frequently may be needed. Monitor the infant’s

body weight and growth daily, and this information can be used as indication of the right volume and

frequency of feeding. As the infant grows and feeding frequencies start to decrease, solid foods may be

introduced (softened vegetables and other adult dietary items) and feeding intervals can decrease to

every 4 hours or longer. Formula should be the foundation of the diet for the first 12 months, but the infant

should be given solid foods as soon as teeth erupt and interest is shown. By 6 months, infants should be

offered approximately ¼ of the adult diet throughout the day. At 1 year of age, formula feeds should be

reduced to three times daily and by 4 to 5 years of age, the infant should be totally weaned. As infants

grow and slowly wean off formula and onto adult diets, it is important to ensure that they are receiving

balanced diets, and to support them during this transitional phase with special attention to vitamins,

calcium, and phosphorus.

In certain cases, early weaning may be encouraged in order to facilitate an early reintroduction.

Weaning should not be premature and should be done under the guidance of a veterinarian and

nutritionist. Training the infant to accept a bottle through the enclosure mesh at an early age may

eliminate the need for early weaning. Solid food can be introduced to the infant at 3 months of age. Foods

should be smooth in consistency to prevent being lodged in the throat. Consult with a nutritionist for

recommendations of what food types to offer. Initially, small amounts (approximately 1 teaspoon) of one

food item should be introduced. Additional food items should be gradually introduced one at a time to

monitor for signs of gastric upset and digestibility. A suggested interval is one new food item every 3 days

prior to adding a new item. This schedule will help to ensure proper digestibility and rule out any food

allergy-related issues. Some suggestions for food items include mashed banana; unsweetened

applesauce; steamed, mashed sweet potatoes; or infant rice cereal. It is preferable to offer fresh produce.

In cases where this is not practical, human baby food that contains only pureed fruits and vegetables can

be an acceptable substitute. A mixture of formula-soaked monkey chow which has been mashed can be

offered once other foods have been introduced and the infant can process semi-solid foods.

Infant records should be maintained daily. Daily records should include weight, formula consumption,

incubator temperature (if applicable), urine and fecal output and general health information. To record

accurate and consistent weights, the infant should be weighed naked at the same time of day. Other

information to record may include reaction to environment or changes in environment, motor skills, and

other physical developments such as dental eruption. Hand-reared animals may reach developmental

milestones at a different rate than a mother-reared infant. It is important to record infant development

using the AZA SSP Developmental Data Sheet, which can be obtained from the Birth Management

Manual or the Husbandry Advisor. If the infant and dam will be introduced at a later date, keeping detailed

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records on the behavioral interactions of both animals (and other potential group members) prior to

reintroduction will help assess the animals’ progress.

As far as infant hygiene is concerned, ideally, diapers or other forms of swaddling should be avoided

in order to replicate a more natural situation for the infant. Diapers or other forms of swaddling may be

used when stool consistency is poor. Diapers should be changed frequently to help prevent rashes. It is

recommended to clean the ano-genital area after each diaper change. “Preemie-sized” diapers work best.

Always remove a diaper prior to weighing the infant. In cases where the infant is having stool consistency

issues and a diaper is used, it is recommended that the infant be allowed to go without a diaper for a

period of time each day. Remove diapers and other forms of swaddling when allowing tactile contact of

the infant with conspecifics, when the infant is on public display (public display of infants being reared or

held by humans is strongly discouraged), or during photographs (publication of photographs of infants

being reared or held by humans is strongly discouraged). The infant does not need regular baths or

cleaning unless excessively soiled.

As previously stated, 24/7 care of infants should be provided. It is optimal for the infant to be carried

at all times as this will encourage a good clinging response and provide critical social comfort. Continual

contact provides a more natural rearing situation and meets an infant’s psychological needs. It also

provides physical stimulation necessary to develop and maintain muscle tone, as well as aiding in proper

digestion, and avoiding aspiration. Mobility is somewhat limited during the first 3 to 6 months of life, so the

caregiver is the most important factor in the infant’s life. Warmth and movement, which allows the infant to

cling and to receive comfort when distressed, are of extreme importance. At several zoos, caregivers

wear furry vests made from material that simulates the color and texture of an orangutan. The infant can

cling while the caregiver moves and uses their arms freely. Although not optimal, carriers designed for

human infants work well, too.

Dependence on a caregiver can be a result of species isolation, not of too much handling (Fritz &

Fritz, 1985). The infant should have exposure to conspecifics immediately unless there is a health risk.

This will help in the reintroduction process and may help promote further interest in the infant by its

mother and vice versa. A balance between caregiver contact and peer contact is recommended. Forcing

independence onto the infant should be discouraged because it may promote insecurities that can inhibit

development and exploration rather than encourage it.

All caregivers should familiarize themselves with orangutan behavior. It is optimal to observe mother-

infant behavior directly, but this can also be accomplished by watching a videotape. The number of

caregivers involved in the hand-rearing process varies from one institution to another. Multiple caregivers

are preferred to reduce unhealthy dependence on any given individual and vice versa. It is recommended

to involve more than one staff member. Until veterinary staff has determined that the infant’s condition is

stable, it is advised to limit the number of caregivers. This will allow the infant to have consistent care until

a daily routine can be established. Recruited volunteers should undergo an orientation process to

become familiar with the protocols and techniques of hand-rearing. Consistency between caregivers is

critical. Volunteers should be medically screened prior to contact with the infant.

It is recommended that caregivers wear protective clothing, masks and gloves when handling the

infant. Medical screening for infant care staff should include a recent negative TB test, parasite screening,

and current vaccinations. Consult the AZA Orangutan SSP Veterinary Advisors for additional

recommendations. Caregivers who are ill should never be in contact with the infant.

The detrimental consequences of prolonged isolation and artificial rearing for certain species are well

documented (Anderson, 1986). Socialization with conspecifics at an early age is essential for the hand-

reared neonate. It is strongly recommended that infant housing be in the orangutan area and in front of

the dam’s enclosure. This allows the infant and dam to have visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile contact

with one another. Ideally, an orangutan enclosure within view or adjacent to that of the dam should be

used. This location will get the infant ready for a future introduction while providing a stable location from

which to explore its environment. The same bedding and nesting materials provided to the adult

orangutans should be used for the infant.

A nursery environment is a relic of the past and does not meet the psychological needs of the infant

or the dam. Infants that are raised in a nursery situation and on public display should not be dressed in

clothes. The AZA Orangutan SSP policy prohibits the public display of orangutans dressed in clothing. If

there is a need for the infant to be viewed by zoo guests, a remote video monitor can be set up to allow

guests to view the animal while being hand-reared in the orangutan area.

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As the infant develops, stimuli should change and become more complex and challenging. Fritz and

Fritz (1985) noted that lack of enrichment toys and climbing structures can seriously handicap a young

orangutan’s ability to develop motor skills. Care should be taken, however, to avoid over-exercising

infants. Zoos should provide a variety of enrichment to help promote psychological well-being. The same

enrichment items provided to adult orangutans should be used with the infant (within reason). Interactions

with caregivers should encourage species-typical behaviors and locomotion skills that will help to promote

normal development. The following is a partial list of enrichment items that have been provided to hand-

reared infant orangutans: classical music, mirrors, photos of orangutans, blankets or hay (substrate) that

have been used by the infant’s mother, shaggy material, cardboard boxes, paper bags, access to

orangutan enclosure structures, swings, fire hose, webbing strips, browse (if the infant is old enough),

and tapes playing vocalizations of orangutan sounds (including male long calls). On a cautionary note,

ropes can cause strangulation. Contact the AZA SSP for appropriate and safe uses of ropes or

alternatives such as fire hose. It is also important to ensure that no enrichment devices have dangerous

features or sharp edges.

With the provision of a stimulating environment (being housed in the orangutan area), 24/7 contact,

enrichment from caregivers, and contact with other orangutans (preferably the infant’s dam and natal

group), abnormal behaviors can usually be avoided. Watts (1992) reported the following stereotypic

behaviors in her hand-rearing survey of zoos: self-clutching of hands and feet (although this behavior

discontinued after the infant was given more stimuli), thumb- and lip-sucking (short-lived), and scratching

of the entire body. Decreasing the number of feedings may also be implicated in many of the behavioral

aberrations seen in hand-reared ape infants due to loss of body contact time (Fritz et al., 1985).

It is highly advisable to develop a management plan for the infant as soon as the infant is stable and

into a regular feeding routine. This management plan should address the progression of steps needed to

properly socialize the infant, dam, and other conspecifics (if applicable). Your plan may include positive

reinforcement training for all the animals involved in the future reintroduction. Contact AZA Orangutan

Husbandry Advisor to assist in developing a plan to determine if any changes are needed as the hand-

rearing process progresses.

Considerations for reintroductions of a hand-reared infant: There is a high success rate for infant

reintroductions. These include introductions to mothers, surrogate mothers, peers, and older conspecifics.

Here are some considerations for review when planning for a reintroduction:

• Provide 24/7 dedicated care in front of the dam’s enclosure to ensure visual, tactile, auditory, and

olfactory contact with conspecifics.

• Make sure the infant and dam (and other conspecifics) are healthy.

•

Ensure interactions between infant and conspecifics are of a positive nature prior to physical

introductions.

• Determine how the infant will be fed once reintroduced – this is a critical step and may involve

positive reinforcement training.

• Review the introduction plan. This plan should address all potential scenarios that could take

place during the introduction. All orangutan keepers and management staff should be involved in

the development of the reintroduction plan. Introduction progress should be continually evaluated

by caregivers and animal management staff. Management plans should be updated regularly

based on the animals’ behavior and progress.

• Reintroduce in a familiar place with familiar people. The infant should be very familiar with all

aspects of the enclosures in which the reintroduction will take place. Baby doors have worked

well in allowing a quick escape in case the introduction does not progress in a positive manner.

Limit the amount of staff actually present for the reintroduction as to not overwhelm or distract the

animals involved. Do not allow unfamiliar observers to be present. If the introduction is to be

videotaped, make sure the animals involved have been desensitized to the presence of a video

camera and lighting prior to reintroduction. Once acclimated to a video camera, a remote viewing

location set up with a monitor can allow additional staff to view the reintroduction with no

disruption to the animals involved.

• When all animals seem adjusted to a step, move on the next. Let the animal’s behavior dictate

the pace of progression of the introduction. Allow the animals time to interact and adapt to

change.

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• If staff time allows, formalized behavioral observations should be done to objectively assess the

progress of the introduction.

• If the introduction initially dictates short introduction periods, ensure visual, olfactory, and auditory

contact between infant and conspecifics.

To summarize, in almost all recent cases of removal, infants have been successfully returned to the

mother or have been reared by a surrogate mother. If infants have to be removed from their mothers,

prolonged hand-rearing should be avoided. Preparations/planning for a reintroduction should begin

immediately. An early reintroduction to the dam is the most preferred situation. Thorough planning prior to

any birth is crucial. If a female has previously rejected offspring or exhibits questionable maternal skills, a

positive reinforcement training program should be instituted prepartum. The development of training

programs in a number of zoos has enabled staff to teach female orangutans to nurse their infants or

permit feeding of infants by caregivers. Dedicated 24/7 care for the infant is strongly recommended and is

critical in meeting the infant’s psychological needs. Infants should be reared within close proximity to the

mother to ensure necessary visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile contact for both the infant and the

mother. The introduction of hand-reared infants to conspecifics should be started as early as possible and

detailed records should be kept. Contact the AZA Orangutan SSP Coordinator for additional

recommendations.

8.6 Contraception

Many animals cared for in AZA-accredited institutions breed so successfully that contraception

techniques are implemented to ensure that the population remains at a healthy size. In the case of an

animal on loan from another facility, consult the loan agreement or owner regarding authority to

contracept. In the case of permanent contraception, prior permission of the animal’s owner should be

obtained.

In addition to reversible contraception, reproduction can be prevented by separating the sexes or by

permanent sterilization. In general, reversible contraception is preferable because it allows natural social

groups to be maintained while managing the genetic health of the population. Permanent sterilization may

be considered for certain individuals, including those for whom reproduction would pose health risks, after

consulting directly with the AZA Orangutan SSP Coordinator. The contraceptive methods most suitable

for orangutans are outlined below. More details on products, application, and ordering information can be

found on the AZA Wildlife Contraception Center (WCC) webpage: www.stlzoo.org/contraception

Recommended methods include birth-control pills, MGA implants, Depo-Provera

injections, and

Implanon

implants. The individual’s health, immobilization risks, social situation, and facility design (i.e.,

constraints on delivery method) are factors to consider in determining the most appropriate contraceptive

method for a particular female orangutan.

Combination birth control pills: Human birth control pills are available in different formulations of

combined synthetic estrogen and progestin. The human regimen for most formulations is 21 days of

hormone treatment and 7 days of a placebo, which results in withdrawal bleeding similar to menstruation.

The majority of great apes that have been treated with birth control pills have followed the same regimen.

Consumption of birth control pills has been reported to be problematic in some orangutans, so special

precautions should be taken to ensure the pill is received each day. A list of birth control pill brands can

be found on the WCC webpage, which is updated annually. In animals that are lactating, a progestin-only

birth control pill is recommended until the infant is at least one year of age. Combination birth control pills

(progestin / estrogen) may be used safely if late in lactation and may provide better protection for

contraception. According to human research (World Health Organization, WHO), the amount of E2 that is

secreted in the milk is negligible, but these pills may cause a decrease in milk production. For this reason,

combination pills are not recommended early in the lactation period. However, if estrous behavior is not

desired, some have not included the placebo period. A new formulation designed for 3 months continuous

are available (visit WCC webpage for details) which allows for just four withdrawal bleeding weeks a year.

Progestins: Progestins (e.g., MGA Implant, Implanon

, Depo-Provera

injections, Ovaban

tablets) block

ovulation and can interfere with sperm transport and implantation. However, they seldom completely

prevent follicle growth, so estrous behavior sometimes occurs. MGA implants have been used extensively

in orangutans and have proven an effective contraception (for more information, visit WCC website).

Progestins are considered safe to use during lactation.

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums

MGA implants: The MGA implant consists of a silastic rod containing 20% by weight of melengestrol

acetate, a synthetic progestin. Implants can be ordered from Wildlife Pharmaceuticals, with dosages

provided by the WCC (see webpage for exact dosing instructions). MGA implants are considered effective

for a minimum of 2 years but may be active longer. Thus, for continued contraception, they should be

replaced every 2 years. If reversal is desired, the implant should be removed even if 2 years have

elapsed.

Depo-Provera

: This injectable formulation contains the synthetic progestin medroxyprogesterone

acetate. The recommended dose is 2 to 3 mg/kg body weight every 2 to 3 months, respectively. Time to

reversal varies greatly among females and can be as long as 2 years. It may be best used as an interim

contraceptive method.

Implanon

: This single-rod implant containing another synthetic progestin etonogestrel was recently

approved for sale in the U.S. It may be effective for as long as 3 years but replacement every 2 years is a

more cautious recommendation.

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists: GnRH agonists (e.g., Suprelorin

implants or

Lupron Depot

) achieve contraception by reversibly suppressing the reproductive endocrine system,

preventing production of pituitary (FSH and LH) and gonadal hormones (estradiol and progesterone in

females and testosterone in males). The observed effects are similar to those following either ovariectomy

in females or castration in males, but are reversible. GnRH agonists first stimulate the reproductive

system, which can result in estrus and ovulation in females or temporary enhancement of testosterone

and semen production in males. Then, down-regulation follows the initial stimulation. The stimulatory

phase can be prevented in females by daily megestrol acetate (2 mg/kg) administration for one week

before and one week after implant placement (Wright et al., 2001). Or, the female can be given the

progestin-only pill for this time period as well, as an alternative to megestrol acetate.

GnRH agonists should not be used during pregnancy, since they may cause spontaneous abortion or

prevent mammary development necessary for lactation. They may prevent initiation of lactation by

inhibiting progesterone secretion, but effects on established lactation are less likely. New data from

domestic cats have shown no effect on subsequent reproduction when treatment began before puberty;

no research in prepubertal orangutans has been conducted.

A drawback of these products is that time of reversal cannot be controlled. Neither the implant

(Suprelorin

) nor the depot vehicle (Lupron

) can be removed to shorten the duration of efficacy to time

reversals. The most widely used formulations are designed to be effective either 6 or 12 months, but

those are for the most part minimum durations, which can be longer in some individuals.

Although GnRH agonists can also be an effective contraceptive in males, they are more commonly

used in females, because monitoring efficacy by suppression of estrous behavior or cyclic gonadal

steroids in feces is usually easier than ensuring continued absence of sperm in males, since most

institutions cannot perform regular semen collections. Suprelorin

has been tested primarily in domestic

dogs, whereas Lupron Depot

has been used primarily in humans, but should be as effective as

Suprelorin

, since the GnRH molecule is identical in all mammalian species.

If used in males, disappearance of sperm from the ejaculate following down-regulation of testosterone

may take an additional 6 weeks, as with vasectomy. It should be easier to suppress the onset of

spermatogenesis in seasonally breeding species, but that process begins at least 2 months before the

first typical appearance of sperm. Thus, treatment should be initiated at least 2 months before the

anticipated onset of breeding. Suprelorin

has been used successfully to control aggression in bachelor

groups of Coquerel’s sifakas and black lemurs (Williams, 2015).

Vaccines: The porcine zona pellucida (PZP) vaccine has not been systematically tested in orangutans.

This approach is not recommended at this time.

Ovariectomy or ovariohysterectomy: Removal of ovaries is a safe and effective method to prevent

reproduction for animals that are eligible for permanent sterilization. In general, ovariectomy is sufficient

in young females, whereas, removal of the uterus as well as ovaries may be preferred in older females.

Before any permanent surgery is performed, the AZA Orangutan SSP should be consulted.

Vasectomy: Vasectomy of males is a safe option if the AZA Orangutan SSP gives permission. It is

important to consider the male fertile for at least 6 weeks following the procedure because spermatozoa

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can survive in the vas deferens after surgery. Reversible vasectomies are possible if the initial surgery

was performed open-ended. More information on the vasectomy and reversal can be found on the WCC

webpage.

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Chapter 9. Behavior Management

9.1 Animal Training

Classical and operant conditioning techniques have been used to train animals for over a century.

Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. Classical

conditioning involves the presentation of a neutral stimulus that will be conditioned (CS) along with an

unconditioned stimulus (US) that evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. If the CS and the US are

repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the animal will begin to produce a

conditioned behavioral response to the CS.

Operant conditioning uses the consequences of a behavior to modify the occurrence and form of that

behavior. Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools of operant conditioning. Positive

reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by a favorable stimulus to increase the frequency of

that behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by the removal of an aversive

stimulus to also increase the frequency of that behavior. Positive punishment occurs when a behavior is

followed by an aversive stimulus to decrease the frequency of that behavior. Negative punishment occurs

when a behavior is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus also to decrease the frequency of that

behavior.

AZA-accredited institutions are expected to utilize reinforcing

conditioning techniques to facilitate husbandry procedures and

behavioral research investigations. Institutions should follow a

formal written animal training program that facilitates husbandry,

science, and veterinary procedures and enhances the health and

well-being of the animals (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.6.4). All

of the techniques behind positive reinforcement training lead

back to one basic principle: the frequency of a desired behavior can be increased by positively reinforcing

the occurrence of that behavior. The reinforcement should be something the animal wants. It may be a

tactile, verbal, food reward, or conspecific. The timing of the delivery of the reinforcement is crucial. It

should immediately follow the desired behavior for the animal to make a connection between the behavior

and the reinforcement. Once the animal makes this connection, however, it will repeatedly display the

behavior to earn additional reinforcement. If the reinforcement is delivered too late, the animal may

associate it with a behavior other than the one the trainer was trying to reinforce.

Because it is not always possible to deliver a food or tactile reward immediately following the desired

behavior, a “bridge”, which may also be called a secondary reinforcer or conditioned reinforcer, is used to

bridge the gap between the behavior and the actual reward. The bridge is usually a sound from a whistle,

a clicker, or a word that tells the animal, “Yes, that’s what I wanted you to do.” This sound signals to the

animal that a tangible reward will be delivered shortly. Use of a bridge allows a trainer to communicate

more exactly the precise action that is desirable and is being reinforced.

When an animal is first learning behaviors or an approximation of a behavior, a reinforcer should be

given for each correct response to communicate that this is the behavior that is earning the

reinforcement. Once the animal consistently responds correctly and the trainer feels certain the animal

has learned the behavior, it is more effective to reinforce the behavior randomly. When using a random or

variable schedule of reinforcement, the trainer gives the animal a tangible reward after a variable number

of correct responses. This random schedule of reinforcement strengthens the desired behavior. Although

the concept of variable reinforcement is somewhat hard to understand, animals tend to get bored if the

pattern becomes too predictable, and so it is actually better to reward for every two or three correct

responses rather than every response after the behavior has been learned. Variable reinforcement also

strengthens a behavior since the animal can’t predict when he or she will receive a reward.

Variation in any aspect of the training session also serves to hold the animal’s interest. Making some

sessions long, some short, some easy and fun, some more challenging, and training in a different

enclosure or location in the same enclosure are all good ways to add variety. The size or magnitude of

the reward should vary, too. More difficult behaviors deserve rewards of greater value. For a discussion

on the importance and implications for varying rewards see Friedman et al. (2006).

Behaviors can be taught either by “capturing” the spontaneous occurrence of a behavior that is

already present in the animal’s behavioral repertoire, or by “shaping” a new behavior. Capturing a

behavior is the process of repeatedly pairing an existing behavior with a reward. For example, if a trainer

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.6.4) The institution should follow a

formal written animal training program

that facilitates husbandry, science, and

veterinary procedures and enhances the

overall health and well-being of the

animals.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums

decides to train an orangutan to take a drink of water on command by capturing the behavior, the trainer

would watch the animal, wait until it took a drink, and then quickly sound the bridge and give the animal a

reinforcer. After many pairings of taking a drink with a reinforcer, the animal will associate its action of

drinking with receiving a reward. It is difficult to capture spontaneous behaviors unless they occur

frequently when the trainer is present. If the trainer rarely sees the orangutan drinking, there will be little

opportunity to reinforce the behavior and it will take longer for the orangutan to make a connection

between drinking and reinforcement.

Shaping involves molding a desired behavior by training small sequential steps that progressively

approximate the behavior until the final behavior has been realized. Shaping is usually necessary to train

complex behaviors or behaviors that don’t occur frequently. The trainer needs to shape a behavior

through a series of small steps that approximate the final desired behavior rather than just rewarding a

final desired behavior when it occurs. It may take longer to shape a behavior than to capture one that

occurs frequently.

Once a trainer is certain that an animal is purposefully behaving a certain way to earn reinforcement,

the trainer can put the behavior on a command or “cue”, which enables the trainer to request the animal

to display the behavior at any particular time. To establish a cue, the trainer precedes the desired

behavior with a voice command or hand signal and only reinforces the animal for displaying the desired

behavior when it occurs after that cue. For example, to establish a cue for “drinking”, the trainer would,

upon seeing the animal moving toward the water source for a drink, quickly clap his hands and say the

word “drink”, the cue he has chosen for this behavior. After many repetitions of pairing the behavior with

the cue, the orangutan will associate the clap and words with being reinforced for taking a drink and will

eventually offer the behavior for the cue.

Targeting and desensitizing are two of the most commonly used techniques for training most

husbandry behaviors. Gaining an understanding of these two methods and learning to apply them can

enable the shaping of a variety of husbandry behaviors. Targeting is a way of shaping a behavior from a

distance in a situation where physical contact is impossible. When training domestic animals, it is often

safe to have physical contact with them, but targeting is a safe extension of a hand that can help show a

more dangerous animal, like an adult male orangutan, what is being requested. Targets are a shortcut for

shaping many behaviors, including teaching orangutans to present body parts to the enclosure front. Any

object that cannot harm the animal if they happen to pull it into the enclosure can be used as a target.

Spoons, plastic spatula handles, and wooden dowels can be used effectively as targets.

Desensitizing is the process of making something tolerable that was once aversive. It is taught using

successive approximations, but shapes tolerance to a stimulus rather than shaping a physical movement,

taking great care not to elicit a fear response. One might desensitize an orangutan to the look and feel of

an ear thermometer to dissipate any fear related to it. Desensitizing requires attention to the animal’s

subtle cues and learning how to read them. Because the animal is being asked to allow something that

may be momentarily uncomfortable, it is important for the animal to trust the trainer, and to move ahead

slowly. Only move forward when the animal is accepting the current level of stimulation without hesitation.

When training a behavior that requires tolerating discomfort, it is very important to reward any discomfort

heavily. When an animal is aware of what is going to happen, trusts its trainer, and expects a desirable

reward following the behavior, then fear can be avoided. See Appendix I for some helpful husbandry

behaviors to train.

Specific enclosure designs recommended to promote successful training programs within orangutan

facilities should include good visual access to animals in all areas, multiple access points to animals both

on and off exhibit, multiple shifting points to allow access to animals as they are moved through the

facility, and built-in mounts for husbandry and medical apparatus, such as blood collection sleeves or

urine collection pans. Also important are large mesh access points for safe treatment of wounds or

delivery of injections, overhead mesh chutes, and multiple and connected off-exhibit areas with no dead

ends (Laule, 1995).

A safe means to provide close contact between caregivers and apes should be devised for each

situation. Ports that can be opened during training sessions can provide more access to the orangutans.

The type of barrier will also affect access. Some trainers prefer mesh with openings as large as 7 cm x 7

cm (3 in. x 3 in.) so that objects of this size can be passed through. However, 5 cm x 5 cm (2 in. x 2 in.)

mesh is more commonly provided. Each institution should accept responsibility for the possible risks

inherent in their choice of materials and opening sizes (Coe et al., 2001).

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9.2 Environmental Enrichment

Environmental enrichment, also called behavioral

enrichment, refers to the practice of providing a variety of stimuli

to the animal’s environment, or changing the environment itself to

increase physical activity, stimulate cognition, and promote

natural behaviors. Stimuli, including natural and artificial objects,

scents, and sounds are presented in a safe way for the

orangutan to interact with. Some suggestions include providing

food in a variety of ways (i.e., frozen in ice or in a manner that

requires an animal to solve simple puzzles to obtain it), using the

presence or scent/sounds of other animals of the same or

different species, and incorporating an animal training (husbandry

or behavioral research) regime in the daily schedule.

Enrichment programs for orangutan should take into account the natural history of the species,

individual needs of the animals, and facility constraints. The orangutan enrichment plan should include

the following elements: goal setting, planning and approval process, implementation,

documentation/record-keeping, evaluation, and subsequent program refinement. The orangutan

enrichment program should ensure that all environmental enrichment devices (EEDs) are “orangutan”

safe and are presented on a variable schedule to prevent habituation. AZA-accredited institutions must

have a formal written enrichment program that promotes orangutan-appropriate behavioral opportunities

(AZA Accreditation Standard 1.6.1). Enrichment activities must be documented and evaluated, and the

program should be refined based on the results, if appropriate.

Records must be kept current (AZA Accreditation Standard

1.6.3).

Orangutan enrichment programs should be integrated with

veterinary care, nutrition, and animal training programs to

maximize the effectiveness and quality of animal care provided.

AZA-accredited institutions must have a specific staff member(s)

assigned to oversee, implement, assess, and coordinate

interdepartmental enrichment programs (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.6.2).

Environmental enrichment is a term which is used to describe a range of methods that can improve

animal welfare, and includes everything from social companionship to toys (Young, 2003). Bloomsmith et

al. (1991) identified five major types of enrichment, each with subcategories:

(1) Social

(1.1) Contact

(1.1.1) Conspecific (pair, group, temporary, permanent)

(1.1.2) Contraspecific (human, non-human)

(1.2) Non-contact

(1.2.1) (visual, auditory, co-operative device)

(1.2.2) (human, nonhuman)

(2) Occupational

(2.1) Psychological (tasks or puzzles, control of environment)

(2.2) Exercise (mechanical devices, run)

(3) Physical

(3.1) Enclosure

(3.1.1) Size (alterations)

(3.1.2) Complexity (panels for apparatus)

(3.2) Accessories

(3.2.1) Internal

(3.2.1.1) Permanent (furniture, bars, swings)

(3.2.1.2) Temporary (toys, ropes, substrates)

(3.2.2) External (hanging objects, puzzles, mirrors)

(4) Sensory

(4.1) Visual (tapes, television, images, windows, lighting)

(4.2) Auditory (music, recordings of vocalizations)

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.6.1) The institution must follow a formal

written enrichment program that promotes

species-appropriate behavioral

opportunities.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.6.2) The institution must have a

specific paid staff member(s) or

committee assigned for enrichment

program oversight, implementation,

assessment, and interdepartmental

coordination of enrichment efforts.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(1.6.3) Enrichment activities must be

documented and evaluated, and program

refinements should be made based on

the results, if appropriate. Records must

be kept current.

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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(4.3) Other stimuli (olfactory, tactile, taste)

(5) Nutritional

(5.1) Delivery (frequency, schedule, presentation, processing time required)

(5.2) Type (novel, variety, browsing, treats)

The type of enrichment devices and opportunities provided varies greatly between institutions.

Consideration should be given to naturalistic versus non-naturalistic enrichment. A combination may be

used: naturalistic while the animals are in public view and non-naturalistic in the holding enclosures. The

options available for animals that are off public view can actually be more diverse and cost-effective

because the emphasis can be purely about function rather than aesthetics, like puzzle boards, toys and

other artificial devices.

Designing environmental enrichment devices can be a time consuming and complex process. It is

important to evaluate if the time, energy and money put into the device design is cost-effective.

Many enrichment items can be obtained at very low cost or for free. A notice can be posted on staff

bulletin boards, listing the items needed, e.g., phone books, blankets, old toys or plastic pools. A

predetermined drop-off location for donations can be established for staff, docents or volunteers. Working

with local vendors or zoological society members can also be a source of free or low-cost enrichment

items, such as burlap bags from coffee bean distributors or carpet rolls from flooring companies. Sharing

ideas on listservs such as redapekeepers@lists.aza.org and enrich@lists.aza.org

can be an excellent

means to increase variety. Caregivers should work with their managers to develop an appropriate

enrichment rotation for their facility.

Social environment: Many orangutans thrive in social groups as opposed to being solitary. Group

composition will vary institutionally. The number of animals housed together depends on the individual

animal personalities and enclosure space. Orangutan management may differ greatly from management

of other great ape species due to a much different social system. Opportunities for social contact can

provide valuable stimulation for compatible animals. Environmental enrichment may be achieved by

further modifying the social environment of an animal. This environment consists of potential interactions

with conspecifics, other species in multi-species exhibits, and members of the animal care staff. The

addition of conspecifics creates opportunities for the expression of species-specific social behavior

including courtship, mating, grooming and playing. Overall activity levels are likely to increase as well

(Baer, 1998). The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) administers the Animal Welfare Act, under which

certain standards of enrichment are mandated for nonhuman primates, including requirements for social

housing. See Animal Welfare Act Part 3, Subpart D, Section 3.81a for detailed requirements.

Poole (1987) suggests that play seems to occupy an important role in the life of managed juvenile,

adolescent and subadult orangutans. In many ex situ social situations, play can be observed across all

age ranges. In cases in which animals should be isolated, social stimulation can come from visual,

auditory, or olfactory stimuli rather than the actual physical presence of another animal (Kreger et al.,

1998). These animals have a greater need for enrichment and attention from caregivers. Animals that

may have the highest priority for enrichment are those in quarantine situations, animals that are

separated from conspecifics for medical management, animals that are preparing for transfer to other

institutions, and groups that are changed for breeding purposes.

Physical environment: Ex situ conditions provide animals with regular food, water and shelter. The

physical environment encompasses temperature, humidity, illumination and sound exposure. When

designing an exhibit for orangutans, consideration should be given to the animals’ natural behavior.

Arboreal locomotion can easily be encouraged by providing usable horizontal and vertical space,

including nesting platforms and climbing structures. Installing ropes, firehose, vines, hanging branches,

ladders, sway poles and mesh in enclosures will promote brachiation and activity. Orangutans can easily

become overweight, so promoting activity is desirable. Installing privacy barriers in an exhibit can reduce

stress while giving the individuals a break from conspecifics and zoo visitors. Elevated platforms,

horizontal aerial pathways and nesting materials should be provided, in addition to the climbing structures

for accessibility, which increase activity levels. These objects and climbing structures can be the most

stimulating options for the animals.

When designing enclosure structures and enrichment devices, orangutan strength and ability to use

tools should be considered. Appropriately implemented programs can contribute to better animal health

by creating opportunities for the animal to exert some level of control over its environment. Whether the

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Association of Zoos and Aquariums

enrichment gives the animal the ability to avoid stressful external stimuli or the opportunity for

displacement behavior, it allows the animal a means for stress reduction and helps to reduce the risk for

any associated health problems (Baer, 1998). Providing a combination of fixed objects (trees, ground

substrate, climbing structures, etc.) and manipulatable objects (ropes, browse, enrichment devices, etc.)

is highly recommended. Wilson (1982) demonstrated that “the environmental complexity of an enclosure

such as the inclusion of fixed, moveable and temporary objects, was more important to the orangutans,

than the size of the enclosure, frequency of feedings or available surface area” (Cocks, 2002). Perkins

(1992) confirmed Wilson’s findings.

Many zoological institutions are nonprofit organizations that are supported by local governments,

visitor admissions, donations and grants. Many visitors are attracted to zoos for recreational purposes,

and although it may not be the primary purpose of the institution, recreation is often the avenue of support

for other zoo interests such as education, research and conservation (Hutchins & Fascione, 1991).

Enrichment is a means to facilitate animal visibility and thus contribute to an exhibit’s recreational and

educational potential. Different methods of feeding animals on exhibit can also be employed to make

them more visible by drawing them toward more ideal viewing areas.

Enrichment strategies do have their constraints which differ from one institution to another. According

to Mench (1998), the primary constraints on environmental enrichment strategies in zoological institutions

are 1) resource availability, which includes social companions and materials from a natural habitat; 2)

animal health; 3) aesthetics and acceptability to visitors; 4) space; and 5) conservation mission. When

providing for orangutans that can be sometimes destructive in nature, exhibit and enrichment device

maintenance and replacement should be included in the annual budget. This adds to the expense of

enrichment in terms of caregiver time involvement as well as the financial aspect.

Husbandry routine: Enrichment should be considered a basic and necessary part of every orangutan

caregiver’s daily husbandry routine. One should never forget that good animal husbandry and animal

welfare are totally dependent on good management by animal caregivers. Making some changes in the

basic husbandry routine can be easily accomplished while increasing the enrichment opportunities for the

animals in one’s care. Studies have shown a marked increase in activity associated with the introduction

of enrichment items (Tripp, 1985). Variety is important and can be accomplished through changing the

daily routine of cleaning, feeding and training schedules, or rotating the enclosure(s) to which an animal

has access. When developing the husbandry routine for orangutans, the focus should be on promoting

foraging, activity, and arboreal locomotion while giving the animals the opportunity to have an element of

control over their environment.

Allowing an animal to have some control over part of their day is very important to psychological well-

being. Feeding behavior and ecology can be particularly important in formulating enrichment strategies

for managed orangutans. Many studies have shown that managed animals prefer to work for their food,

rather than to be fed ad libitum (Kreger et al., 1998). The more interesting, challenging and naturalistic

ways that food can be provisioned, the more successful enrichment projects have been (Shepherdson,

1992).

All orangutans should be provided with fresh nesting material on a daily basis. Nesting material

promotes species-typical behavior while giving the animals a comfortable place to rest. In addition,

nesting material provides an excellent opportunity to promote foraging behavior. Foraging for food items

mixed in straw, timothy hay, shredded paper or wood wool (natural wood excelsior) will occupy most

animals for hours. Encouraging a time budget closer to that of wild orangutans that spend a large part of

their day foraging for food can help to reduce or eliminate the performance of abnormal behavior.

Enrichment opportunities can be diet-related. An animal’s regular diet can be presented in many ways.

For example, an animal can be encouraged to climb and search for food by distributing the regular diet

throughout the enclosure instead of placing it in a single pile in the enclosure.

Novelty, presentation method, and timing can all add variety to any program. For example, Barbiers

(1985) found that orangutans consumed more monkey chow when it was presented in varied colors.

Multiple smaller feedings may be more enriching than the same quantity of food presented in just two

daily meals. Feeding enrichment can help to reduce the occurrence of abnormal behavior and improve

the physical condition of the animals (Young, 1997). Orangutans can easily become obese, and

encouraging animals to obtain their food in an active manner can help to alleviate this problem. Regular

food items can be chopped into smaller pieces or frozen into a large block of ice.

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Browse: The benefits of browse as a form of environmental enrichment have been well documented.

Offering browse to orangutans regularly as part of an enrichment program provides nutritional

supplements to the diet, stimulates natural behavior activities, and helps to decrease unwanted or

stereotypic behaviors. The provision of browse may contribute to reductions in the expression of

coprophagy (more commonly observed in gorillas than orangutans) and regurgitation/reingestion (R & R)

behavior (Maple & Perkins, 1996). By offering more complex food items that may require increased

processing time to consume, feeding time is increased. Before offering an animal any type of browse

material, it is imperative that each plant species be researched for the poisonous potential of all aspects

of the plant. Also, look for the list of browse items used at multiple institutions in the Diet section of this

manual.

An ideal way to obtain browse for orangutans is to contact local councils or parks for donations of

browse during routine pruning operations. It is critical to verify that any material received in donation has

not been sprayed with any toxins, such as pesticides, and has not been subjected to high levels of

pollution. When fresh-cut browse is received and not fed immediately, it may be stored in containers with

water or in cool rooms to maintain freshness. In areas where colder climates do not allow for year-round

growth outdoors, browse may be put in containers and frozen to prolong availability. Many zoological

institutions have created successful botanical gardens on their premises.

Providing browse to orangutans is a simple means of forming a connection between caregivers and

visitors through education. Discussing the many benefits of browse with visitors is an easy way to help

connect people with animals and nature. While many zoo guests recognize browse as a form of food,

they may observe orangutans using browse in many different ways. Some animals use browse in

affiliative play interactions between conspecifics, as a means of building a sleeping nest as they would do

in the wild, or as a tool to extract hard-to-reach or hidden food items (Nakamichi, 2004; Samson &

Shumaker, 2015).

Novelty: Novelty and variability are an important part of any enrichment program. Adding a variety of

novel objects will reduce the rate of habituation and give individuals more choices. Studies show that

enrichment programs that offer novel items result in a reduction in lethargy of orangutans (Wright, 1995).

Avoid boredom by rotating enrichment devices and food items. When many environmental enrichment

devices are available, they can be utilized on a bi-weekly or monthly basis.

Safety: Use of any enrichment device or item should be approved by curators, veterinary staff and

nutrition experts for each individual animal. There have been documented cases of animal injury related

to unsafe environmental enrichment devices, including great apes that have drowned in deep water

moats, ingestion of rope resulting in fatality, strangulation by loose rope, and zinc toxicosis from

galvanized metal. The following list of questions from Young (2003) should be kept in mind when

developing and implementing an environmental enrichment device (which includes ropes, chains, etc.):

• Does the device have any sharp edges?

•

Can the animal’s head, digits, limbs or other appendages become trapped inside any part of the

device?

•

How likely is it that the animal could break the device? If the device could be broken, would it

break into sharp fragments or would the constituent parts of the device pose a safety risk?

• Could the device be dismantled by the animal? If the device could be dismantled, would any

constituent parts pose a safety risk?

• Can the device or any part of it be swallowed?

• Is the device made of non-toxic material?

• Could the animal gnaw pieces off the device?

• Can the device be cleaned adequately or sterilized to prevent disease transmission?

• Can the animal become entangled in the device?

• Could the animal use the device as an instrument to harm conspecifics, caregivers, or facility

visitors?

• Could the animal use the device to damage its enclosure? This is especially important in

enclosures with glass windows. Orangutans in some zoos have learned that a sharp blow with a

hard object to the corner of a shatter-proof window will break the glass.

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• Could the animal use the device to facilitate escape from its enclosure?

• Can the animal see the object?

• Are devices using electronics properly grounded and insulated?

• Can the device be filled and maintained quickly?

• Does the installation of the device block any caregiver access or restrict views of the animals?

• Does use of the device require the caregiver to enter the enclosure?

• Is the device of the simplest design possible?

Once the safety guidelines have been addressed, the finished device should be tested before it is

given to an animal. Some basic tests include the drop test, sharp edge and seams test, and testing the

strength of the seams and attachments. When using metal chains and connections, the use of stainless

steel should be investigated, as it is highly durable and will not rust or become a hazard as galvanized

metal can. Strong connections with glue such as Loctite

are recommended since an orangutan can

readily loosen screws or bolts that would take a human many hours to tighten with tools.

9.3 Staff and Animal Interactions

Animal training and environmental enrichment protocols and techniques should be based on

interactions that promote safety for all involved. Caregiver-orangutan interaction is inevitable during the

course of the daily care of orangutans. The relationship that forms between caregivers and orangutans

influences all aspects of care. The form that relationship takes will depend on a variety of factors,

including knowledge of the species, understanding of what the job entails, attitudes and expectations of

the caregivers, the behavior of individual orangutans, and the tools and techniques a caregiver has to

accomplish daily tasks.

The AZA Ape TAG recommends ‘protected contact’ for managing adult apes; there should always be

a protective barrier between the ape and the human caregiver, and the two should never share the same

unrestricted space. The reasons for this are threefold: 1) safety concerns for the keeper (directed and

accidental injuries); 2) short- and long-term effects of extended human interaction on the apes (such as

maternal, sexual and behavioral effects); and 3) the influence of human interaction on public perception of

apes (and their suitability as pets). In cases where keepers should have direct contact with apes (such as

in a nursery-rearing scenario), the AZA Orangutan SSP recommends that these interactions take place

with appropriate zoonotic considerations, and not within view of the public. Access to any orangutan area

should be limited to those individuals trained in the proper safety and care procedures, or supervised by

those individuals. A secondary containment area should be established to allow any keeper a means of

protection in the event of an escape.

Facilities should be designed with the facilitation of operant conditioning training in mind. As such,

there should be sufficient mesh panels allowing protected contact between keepers/trainers and the

orangutans. These panels should be as numerous as possible to increase the flexibility of training

opportunities, including, if possible, panels at varying heights.

Care should be taken to reduce the likelihood of zoonotic disease transmission. Use of masks and

latex gloves is recommended when working with orangutans. Trainer/keepers that are experiencing any

illness should abstain from interacting with the apes through mesh. Likewise, care should be taken to

reduce the risk of physical injury as orangutans can grab fingers, hair, and clothing through the protective

barrier. Loose-fitting clothing and jewelry should be restrained, replaced or removed and long hair should

be netted or tied back. Care should be taken to be aware of the location of orangutans’ hands, feet, and

mouths at all times during training sessions, as well as the location of conspecifics in the training location

if the trainee is not separated. A commonly used strategy during training is to request that the orangutan

stay in contact with a target (often a small plastic item such as a PVC elbow joint, which is easily clipped

onto the mesh) with their hand. Inserting fingers through the mesh incurs a risk of biting and as such

human body parts should never enter into the orangutans’ side of the barrier.

9.4 Staff Skills and Training

Orangutan staff members should be trained in all areas of orangutan behavior management. Funding

should be provided for AZA continuing education courses, related meetings, conference participation, and

other professional opportunities. A reference library appropriate to the size and complexity of the

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institution should be available to all staff and volunteers to provide them with accurate information on the

behavioral needs of the animals with which they work.

The foundation for a good caregiver relationship with orangutans is multifaceted. Knowledge and

understanding of the species’ behavior is essential. It is important to understand how a wild orangutan

interacts with its environment and other conspecifics. Becoming familiar with this information will not only

help staff interpret behaviors of the orangutans in their care but will help in defining solutions to problems

affecting their lives. For example, orangutans are arboreal and live in habitats that are highly flexible and

movable. This understanding encourages the provision of exhibits that facilitate climbing and nesting high

off the ground. By making regular changes to the pathways for travel in exhibits and holding enclosures,

animals are presented with variety and mental stimulation, which is an important aspect of orangutan

husbandry. The development and maintenance of a mutually trusting relationship between caregiver and

orangutan is critical to the successful management of the taxon.

Knowing the life history of individual orangutans is also very important. Are they wild or zoo born,

hand-reared or mother-reared? Species traits and individual characteristics combine to form a unique

personality for each orangutan. Learning the past histories of animals—where they have lived, which

other orangutans they have lived with, and the characteristics of their previous relationships with

conspecifics and caregivers—can aid in the interpretation of an individual’s behavior. APES profiles help

to provide a wide variety of behavioral, housing, and historical information for the majority of the

orangutans within the AZA SSP population.

Open communication with previous caregivers is essential. This not only provides an opportunity to

learn from contact with others zoological professionals, but also gives former caregivers much

appreciated regular updates on the status of an animal with whom they have had a prior relationship.

Former caregivers can always provide useful information that will benefit both caregiver and animal.

Finally, it is important for all staff members to have a solid understanding of positive reinforcement

training and the ability to effectively use the techniques. At least one individual should have training skills

to help deal with difficult situations or problems when they arise.

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Chapter 10. Research

10.1 Known Methodologies

AZA believes that contemporary orangutan management,

husbandry, veterinary care and conservation practices should be

based in science, and that a commitment to scientific research,

both basic and applied, is a trademark of the modern zoological

park and aquarium. AZA-accredited institutions have the

invaluable opportunity, and are expected, to conduct or facilitate

research both in in situ and ex situ settings to advance scientific

knowledge of the animals in our care and enhance the

conservation of wild populations. This knowledge might be

achieved by participating in AZA Taxon Advisory Group (TAG) or

Species Survival Plan

(SSP) Program sponsored research,

conducting and publishing original research projects, affiliating

with local universities, and/or employing staff with scientific

credentials (AZA Accreditation Standard 5.3). An AZA institution

must demonstrate a commitment to scientific study that is in

proportion to the size and scope of its facilities, staff, and animals

(AZA Accreditation Standard 5.0).

All record-keeping requirements noted previously apply to most research animals, especially those

which are part of the exhibit collection. When an animal on loan to a facility is subject to an invasive

research procedure, including when done as part of a routine health exam, the owner’s prior permission is

to be obtained.

Orangutans are managed by the AZA Orangutan SSP. Along with the other ape taxa, the AZA

Orangutan SSP falls under the oversight of the Ape TAG. Orangutans are endangered in the wild

primarily because of clear-cutting for oil palm plantations, illegal logging and hunting. As intelligent

animals that play a vital role in forest ecosystems, it is important for us to implement effective

conservation plans for them. To do this, we need strong scientific research to help advance the

understanding of conditions affecting orangutans in the wild, how they cope with certain habitat changes,

how best to rehabilitate and reintroduce confiscated orangutans, ecological information, and more. In

addition, orangutans are valuable to study both in the wild and managed environments because of their

evolutionary similarities to humans. As such, they can help us to better understand human evolution.

Although orangutans have historically been studied less than the other great apes, there are many

zoological institutions that house orangutans. Some of these institutions may be willing to collaborate with

research projects. In looking for potential collaborators, we recommend the use of the International

Directory of Primatologists: http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/idp/wdp

Research investigations, whether observational, behavioral, physiological, or genetically based,

should have a clear scientific purpose with the reasonable expectation that they will increase our

understanding of the species being investigated and may provide results which benefit the health or

welfare of animals in wild populations. Many AZA-accredited institutions incorporate superior positive

reinforcement training programs into their routine schedules to facilitate sensory, cognitive, and

physiological research investigations, and these types of programs are strongly encouraged by the AZA.

Research with orangutans has taken many forms and has given us much information about their

behavior, intelligence, ecology, genetic make-up, physiology, life history, and conservation status.

Research on orangutans can also help to inform zoological care-giving techniques by monitoring behavior

and health before and after management changes. Research like this is important to establish biological

and behavioral markers of improved health and well-being that are based on solid scientific data.

Because of this, it is important to consider collaborations with researchers that may request assistance

with gathering/providing data and/or biological samples from zoo-housed orangutans.

AZA-accredited institutions are required to have a clearly written research policy that includes a

process for the evaluation of project proposals and identifies the types of research being conducted,

methods used, staff involved, evaluations of the projects, animals included, and guidelines for the

reporting or publication of any findings

(AZA Accreditation Standard 5.2). Institutions must designate a

AZA Accreditation Standard

(5.3) The institution should maximize the

generation and dissemination of scientific

knowledge gained. This might be

achieved by participating in AZA

TAG/SSP sponsored studies when

applicable, conducting and publishing

original research projects, affiliating with

local universities, and/or employing staff

with scientific credentials.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(5.0) The institution must have a

demonstrated commitment to scientific

study that is in proportion to the size and

scope of its facilities, staff (paid and

unpaid), and animals.

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qualified staff member or committee to oversee and direct its

research program (AZA Accreditation Standard 5.1).

An Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

should be established within the institution if animals are included

in research or instructional programs. The IACUC should be

responsible for reviewing all research protocols and conducting

evaluations of the institution's animal care and use.

If institutions are not able to conduct in-house research

investigations, they are strongly encouraged to provide financial,

personnel, logistical, and other support for priority research and

conservation initiatives identified by Taxon Advisory Groups

(TAGs) or Species Survival Plans

(SSP) Programs.

Many zoos have begun supporting orangutan field

researchers and conservationists. This is a great way to connect

a zoo’s orangutans to those that live in the wild, and to highlight

this link to visitors. There are many worthy organizations that oversee orangutan conservation and

research in the field. The AZA SSP has a Field Advisory Subcommittee that is available to help zoos

obtain the information they need about where and how to send funding to orangutan conservation and

research projects. This subcommittee can provide participating institutions with the most recent requests

for funds for various projects, detailed information on various projects’ missions and goals, safe ways to

send money to the projects, and updates on how contributions have been used. Projects can be matched

to an institution’s mission and vision. Recommended projects address different facets of orangutan

conservation including habitat protection efforts, rehabilitation work, education outreach projects, capacity

building efforts, firefighting, and conservation-based research. The AZA Orangutan SSP goal is to have

all participating institutions supporting orangutan conservation in a tangible way. Please notify the AZA

SSP if your institution provides support to a project. This will allow tracking and accurate record keeping

about such support.

10.2 Future Research Needs

This Animal Care Manual is a dynamic document that will need to be updated as new information is

acquired. Knowledge gaps have been identified throughout the Manual and are included in this section to

promote future research investigations. Knowledge gained from these areas will maximize AZA-

accredited institutions’ capacity for excellence in animal care and welfare as well as enhance

conservation initiatives for the species.

Although we know and have learned a great deal about caring for orangutans over the years, there

are still some significant gaps in our knowledge of orangutan husbandry. Some areas that deserve more

research include:

• Husbandry routines and exhibits that best promote arboreality, increase activity, and decrease

lethargy.

• Daily caloric needs and food items that provide the healthiest diet.

• Preventing obesity and subsequent health risks that are linked to being overweight, such as

diabetes.

• Ideal social structures.

• Causes, treatments, and prevention of respiratory disease.

• Prevention and reduction of undesirable behaviors such as regurgitation and re-ingestion.

• Reproductive information such as ideal contraception, what constitutes “normal” reproductive

behavior, and arrested development in males.

• Orangutan personality and its links with behavior, management, and reproductive decisions.

• Influence of keeper style/personality on orangutan behavior.

• Ways to increase psychological complexity of the zoo environment and increase orangutan

control.

• The influence of zoo visitors on orangutan well-being.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(5.1) Scientific studies must be under the

direction of a paid or unpaid staff member

or committee qualified to make informed

decisions.

AZA Accreditation Standard

(5.2) The institution must follow a formal

written policy that includes a process for

the evaluation and approval of scientific

project proposals, and outlines the type of

studies it conducts, methods, staff (paid

and unpaid) involvement, evaluations,

animals that may be involved, and

guidelines for publication of findings.

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100

Chapter 11. Other Considerations

11.1 Surplus Animals

All AZA SSP species held by institutions should be reported to the AZA SSP Program Leaders. The

AZA SSP Program Leader should be responsible for making the decision as to whether or not specific

animals are to be included in the managed population (e.g., over-represented animals or animals beyond

reproductive age). Those animals not included in the managed population should be considered surplus

to the managed population, but records still should be maintained on them to the same degree as those

in the managed population. All orangutans managed in AZA institutions are considered part of the SSP,

including hybrids as mentioned earlier in this manual. If it is recommended to place an SSP orangutan in

a non-AZA institution, such a decision should be communicated by the SSP to the appropriate

organizations (Ape TAG, PMC, etc.) in writing.

11.2 Additional Information

The Ape Profile and Evaluation System (APES) is a project started in 1995 by the AZA Orangutan

SSP Husbandry Advisor. Its purpose is to provide a thorough behavioral and social history picture for any

orangutan within the AZA SSP population. Information collected on these forms includes rearing and

social history, personality traits, diet, behavioral enrichment, training, exhibits, and reproductive history.

All of the information gathered from the profiles is reviewed to search for trends and potential

concerns in ex situ orangutan management. One of the first analyses done on the data set was to

examine rearing trends. One of the goals of the AZA SSP is to eliminate hand-rearing of infants as it does

not provide proper socialization and can use a great deal of staff resources. Many other trends are likely

to be uncovered through examination of APES forms. Please contact the AZA Orangutan SSP

coordinator for the APES form and/or for a completed example.

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101

Acknowledgements

The AZA SSP gratefully acknowledges the Taronga Conservation Society Australia for the contributions

to this manual made by Michelle Shaw, Nutritionist. The SSP also would like to thank Rebecca

Greenberg, Felicia Spector, Candice Dorsey, and Debborah Luke for their reviews of earlier drafts of this

manual.

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102

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Joseph Smith, DVM, Ft. Wayne Children’s Zoo, 2016

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Appendix A: Accreditation Standards by Chapter

The following specific standards of care relevant to orangutans are taken from the AZA Accreditation

Standards and Related Policies (AZA, 2017) and are referenced fully within the chapters of this animal

care manual:

General Information

(1.1.1) The institution must comply with all relevant local, state/provincial, and federal wildlife laws and/or

regulations. It is understood that, in some cases, AZA accreditation standards are more stringent

than existing laws and/or regulations. In these cases the AZA standard must be met.

Chapter 1

(1.5.7) The animals must be protected or provided accommodation from weather or other conditions

clearly known to be detrimental to their health or welfare.

(10.2.1) Critical life-support systems for the animals, including but not limited to plumbing, heating,

cooling, aeration, and filtration, must be equipped with a warning mechanism, and emergency

backup systems must be available. Warning mechanisms and emergency backup systems must be

tested periodically.

(1.5.9) The institution must have a regular program of monitoring water quality for fish, marine mammals,

and other aquatic animals. A written record must be maintained to document long-term water quality

results and chemical additions.

Chapter 2

(1.5.1) All animals must be well cared for and presented in a manner reflecting modern zoological

practices in exhibit design, balancing animals’ welfare requirements with aesthetic and educational

considerations.

(1.5.2) All animals must be housed in enclosures which are safe for the animals and meet their physical

and psychological needs.

(1.5.2.1) All animals must be kept in appropriate groupings which meet their social and welfare needs.

(1.5.2.2) All animals should be provided the opportunity to choose among a variety of conditions within

their environment.

(10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits, holding areas, hospital, and quarantine/isolation) must be of a

size and complexity sufficient to provide for the animal’s physical, social, and psychological well-

being. AZA housing guidelines outlined in the Animal Care Manuals should be followed.

(10.3.4) When sunlight is likely to cause overheating of or discomfort to the animals, sufficient shade (in

addition to shelter structures) must be provided by natural or artificial means to allow all animals kept

outdoors to protect themselves from direct sunlight.

(11.3.3) Special attention must be given to free-ranging animals so that no undue threat is posed to either

the institution’s animals, the free-ranging animals, or the visiting public. Animals maintained where

they will be in contact with the visiting public must be carefully monitored, and treated humanely at all

times.

(11.3.1) All animal exhibits and holding areas must be secured to prevent unintentional animal egress.

(1.5.15) All animal exhibit and holding area air and water inflows and outflows must be securely protected

to prevent animal injury or egress.

(2.8.1) Pest control management programs must be administered in such a manner that the animals, paid

and unpaid staff, the public, and wildlife are not threatened by the pests, contamination from pests, or

the control methods used.

(11.3.6) There must be barriers in place (for example, guardrails, fences, walls, etc.) of sufficient strength

and/or design to deter public entry into animal exhibits or holding areas, and to deter public contact

with animals in all areas where such contact is not intended.

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(11.2.4) All emergency procedures must be written and provided to appropriate paid and unpaid staff.

Appropriate emergency procedures must be readily available for reference in the event of an actual

emergency.

(11.2.5) Live-action emergency drills (functional exercises) must be conducted at least once annually for

each of the four basic types of emergency (fire; weather or other environmental emergency

appropriate to the region; injury to visitor or paid/unpaid staff; and animal escape). Four separate

drills are required. These drills must be recorded and results evaluated for compliance with

emergency procedures, efficacy of paid/unpaid staff training, aspects of the emergency response that

are deemed adequate are reinforced, and those requiring improvement are identified and

modified. (See 11.7.4 for other required drills).

(11.6.2) Security personnel, whether employed by the institution, or a provided and/or contracted service,

must be trained to handle all emergencies in full accordance with the policies and procedures of the

institution. In some cases, it is recognized that Security personnel may be in charge of the respective

emergency (i.e. shooting teams).

(11.2.6) The institution must have a communication system that can be quickly accessed in case of an

emergency.

(11.2.0) A paid staff member or a committee must be designated as responsible for ensuring that all

required emergency drills are conducted, recorded, and evaluated in accordance with AZA

accreditation standards (see 11.2.5, 11.5.2, and 11.7.4).

(11.2.7) A written protocol should be developed involving local police or other emergency agencies and

include response times to emergencies.

(11.5.3) Institutions maintaining potentially dangerous animals must have appropriate safety procedures

in place to prevent attacks and injuries by these animals. Appropriate response procedures must also

be in place to deal with an attack resulting in an injury. These procedures must be practiced routinely

per the emergency drill requirements contained in these standards. Whenever injuries result from

these incidents, a written account outlining the cause of the incident, how the injury was handled, and

a description of any resulting changes to either the safety procedures or the physical facility must be

prepared and maintained for five years from the date of the incident.

(11.5.2) All areas housing venomous animals must be equipped with appropriate alarm systems, and/or

have protocols and procedures in place which will notify paid and unpaid staff in the event of a bite

injury, attack, or escape from the enclosure. These systems and/or protocols and procedures must be

routinely checked to insure proper functionality, and periodic drills (at minimum annually) must be

conducted to insure that appropriate paid and unpaid staff are notified. (See 11.2.5 and 11.7.4 for

other required drills).

(11.5.1) Institutions maintaining venomous animals must have appropriate antivenin readily available, and

its location must be known by all paid and unpaid staff working in those areas. An individual must be

responsible for inventory, disposal/replacement, and storage of antivenin.

Chapter 3

(1.4.0) The institution must show evidence of having a zoological records management program for

managing animal records, veterinary records, and other relevant information.

(1.4.6) A paid staff member must be designated as being responsible for the institution's animal record-

keeping system. That person must be charged with establishing and maintaining the institution's

animal records, as well as with keeping all paid and unpaid animal care staff members apprised of

relevant laws and regulations regarding the institution's animals.

(1.4.7) Animal and veterinary records must be kept current.

(1.4.4) Animal records and veterinary records, whether in electronic or paper form, must be duplicated

and stored in a separate location. Animal records are defined as data, regardless of physical form or

medium, providing information about individual animals, or samples or parts thereof, or groups of

animals.

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(1.4.5) At least one set of the institution’s historical animal and veterinary records must be stored and

protected. Those records should include permits, titles, declaration forms, and other pertinent

information.

(1.4.1) An animal inventory must be compiled at least once a year and include data regarding acquisition,

transfer, euthanasia, release, and reintroduction.

(1.4.2) All species owned by the institution must be listed on the inventory, including those animals on

loan to and from the institution.

(1.4.3) Animals must be identifiable, whenever practical, and have corresponding ID numbers. For

animals maintained in colonies/groups or other animals not considered readily identifiable, the

institution must provide a statement explaining how recordkeeping is maintained.

Chapter 4

(1.5.11) Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that is safe, well-planned and coordinated,

and minimizes risk to the animal(s), employees, and general public. All applicable laws and/or

regulations must be adhered to.

(1.5.10) Temporary, seasonal and traveling live animal exhibits, programs, or presentations (regardless of

ownership or contractual arrangements) must be maintained at the same level of care as the

institution’s permanent resident animals, with foremost attention to animal welfare considerations,

both onsite and at the location where the animals are permanently housed.

Chapter 6

(2.6.2) The institution must follow a written nutrition program that meets the behavioral and nutritional

needs of all species, individuals, and colonies/groups in the institution. Animal diets must be of a

quality and quantity suitable for each animal’s nutritional and psychological needs.

(2.6.1) Animal food preparation and storage must meet all applicable laws and/or regulations.

(2.6.3) The institution must assign at least one paid or unpaid staff member to oversee appropriate

browse material for the animals (including aquatic animals).

Chapter 7

(2.1.1) A full-time staff veterinarian is recommended. In cases where such is not necessary because of

the number and/or nature of the animals residing there, a consulting/part-time veterinarian must be

under written contract to make at least twice monthly inspections of the animals and to respond as

soon as possible to any emergencies.

(2.1.2) So that indications of disease, injury, or stress may be dealt with promptly, veterinary coverage

must be available to the animals24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

(2.0.1) The institution should adopt the Guidelines for Zoo and Aquarium Veterinary Medical Programs

and Veterinary Hospitals, and policies developed or supported by the American Association of Zoo

Veterinarians (AAZV). The most recent edition of the medical programs and hospitals booklet is

available at the AAZV website, under “Publications”, at

http://www.aazv.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=839

, and can also be obtained in PDF

format by contacting AZA staff.

(2.2.1) Written, formal procedures must be available to paid and unpaid animal care staff for the use of

animal drugs for veterinary purposes, and appropriate security of the drugs must be provided.

(2.7.1) The institution must have holding facilities or procedures for the quarantine of newly arrived

animals and isolation facilities or procedures for the treatment of sick/injured animals. Quarantine

duration should be assessed and determined by the pathogen risk and best practice for animal

welfare.

(2.7.3) Quarantine, hospital, and isolation areas should be in compliance with standards/guidelines

contained within the Guidelines for Zoo and Aquarium Veterinary Medical Programs and Veterinary

Hospitals developed by the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV), which can be

obtained at: http://www.aazv.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=839

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(2.7.2) Written, formal procedures for quarantine must be available and familiar to all paid and unpaid

staff working with quarantined animals.

(11.1.2) Training and procedures must be in place regarding zoonotic diseases.

(11.1.3) A tuberculin (TB) testing/surveillance program must be established for appropriate paid and

unpaid staff in order to assure the health of both the paid and unpaid staff and the animals.

(2.5.1) Deceased animals should be necropsied to determine the cause of death for tracking morbidity

and mortality trends to strengthen the program of veterinary care and meet SSP-related requests.

(2.5.2) The institution should have an area dedicated to performing necropsies.

(2.5.3) Cadavers must be kept in a dedicated storage area before and after necropsy. Remains must be

disposed of in accordance with local/federal laws.

(2.0.2) The veterinary care program must emphasize disease prevention.

(2.0.3) Institutions should be aware of and prepared for periodic disease outbreaks in wild or other

domestic or exotic animal populations that might affect the institution’s animals (ex – Avian Influenza,

Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus, etc.). Plans should be developed that outline steps to be taken to

protect the institution’s animals in these situations.

(1.5.5) For animals used in offsite programs and for educational purposes, the institution must have

adequate protocols in place to protect the rest of the animals at the institution from exposure to

infectious agents.

(11.1.3) A tuberculin (TB) testing/surveillance program must be established for appropriate staff in order

to ensure the health of both the employees and the animals. Each institution must have an employee

occupational health and safety program.

(2.3.1) Capture equipment must be in good working order and available to authorized, trained personnel

at all times.

(2.1.3) Paid and unpaid animal care staff should be trained to assess welfare and recognize abnormal

behavior and clinical signs of illness and have knowledge of the diets, husbandry (including

enrichment items and strategies), and restraint procedures required for the animals under their care.

However, animal care staff (paid and unpaid) must not diagnose illnesses nor prescribe treatment.

(2.3.2) Institution facilities must have radiographic equipment or have access to radiographic services.

(1.5.8) The institution must develop and implement a clear and transparent process for identifying,

communicating, and addressing animal welfare concerns from paid or unpaid staff within the

institution in a timely manner, and without retribution.

Chapter 9

(1.6.4) The institution should follow a formal written animal training program that facilitates husbandry,

science, and veterinary procedures and enhances the overall health and well-being of the animals.

(1.6.1) The institution must follow a formal written enrichment program that promotes species-appropriate

behavioral opportunities.

(1.6.3) Enrichment activities must be documented and evaluated, and program refinements should be

made based on the results, if appropriate. Records must be kept current.

(1.6.2) The institution must have a specific paid staff member(s) or committee assigned for enrichment

program oversight, implementation, assessment, and interdepartmental coordination of enrichment

efforts.

Chapter 10

(1.5.5) For animals used in offsite programs and for educational purposes, the institution must have

adequate protocols in place to protect the rest of the animals at the institution from exposure to

infectious agents.

Chapter 11

(5.3) The institution should maximize the generation and dissemination of scientific knowledge gained.

This might be achieved by participating in AZA TAG/SSP sponsored studies when applicable,

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conducting and publishing original research projects, affiliating with local universities, and/or

employing staff with scientific credentials.

(5.0) The institution must have a demonstrated commitment to scientific study that is in proportion to the

size and scope of its facilities, staff (paid and unpaid), and animals.

(5.2) The institution must follow a formal written policy that includes a process for the evaluation and

approval of scientific project proposals, and outlines the type of studies it conducts, methods, staff

(paid and unpaid) involvement, evaluations, animals that may be involved, and guidelines for

publication of findings.

(5.1) Scientific studies must be under the direction of a paid or unpaid staff member or committee

qualified to make informed decisions.

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Appendix B: Recordkeeping Guidelines for Group Accessions

Developed by the AZA Institutional Data Management Scientific Advisory Group

Published 23 May 2014

Edited to replace the document entitled “Updated Data Entry for Groups” published 16 December 2002

Animals can be accessioned into a collection as either individuals or as part of a group. The term "group"

has many definitions when used in zoos and aquariums, and is usually defined by its application, such as

a social group or animals grouped for husbandry purposes. To provide a consistent language that can be

used throughout the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), the term “group accession”, as defined by

the AZA Institutional Data Management Scientific Advisory Group (IDMAG),

• contains multiple animals of the same species or subspecies, which

• cannot be differentiated from one another, either physically (there are no scars or color pattern

differences), artificially (they are not tagged or transpondered), or spatially (they are not held in

separate enclosures), and

• are cared for as a whole.

Thus, no individually accessioned animals are included in a group accession and no individually

identifiable animals are included in a group accession. As soon as an animal becomes individually

identifiable, it is recommended that it be split from the group record and accessioned as an individual. For

example, large clutches of amphibian tadpoles should first be accessioned as a group; then as individuals

become identifiable, they should be removed from the group record and accessioned as individuals.

Otherwise, information about an individual animal that could otherwise be tracked through the animal’s

life will be lost in the group record. An exception to this occurs occasionally when a group member is

removed and temporarily held separately for medical treatment, with the expectation that it will be

returned to the group when treatment ends. In this case, the animal remains part of the group even

though separated from it. As with individual records, group record accession numbers should not

duplicate any other accession number, and once a group accession number has been assigned, it should

not be changed.

Group accession provides less information on specific individuals than does individual accession. Group

records make information less retrievable, and often need more clarifying comments than individual

records. Whenever information applies to only part of the group, notes should be used to indicate which

animal(s) the information applies to. It is of utmost importance that these notes be thorough and clear so

future readers can easily understand them. Examples of information needing additional notations in group

records include, but are not limited to, parentage when not every member of the group has the ˘the group.

Thus, though it is preferable to accession animals as individuals, a group accession can capture

considerable information when individual accession is not appropriate.

Although colonies are often confused with groups, the term “colony” should be used to designate truly

colonial organisms: those that must live and function as an intact unit, such as corals and eusocial

insects. Individuals within a colony are components of a single entity rather than separate members of a

group. Also, colony members generally cannot be counted and true census data is not possible, so for the

purposes of inventory, a colony is a singular unit while a group is composed of a number of individuals.

However, for accessioning purposes, colonies are treated in the same manner as are groups.

Examples of Appropriate Group Accessions

• A group of animals that are not individually identifiable and are the same species or subspecies.

Your institution receives 50 Puerto Rican crested toad tadpoles to rear. Unless each tadpole

is raised in a separate numbered tank, there is no way to tell one tadpole from another. All

tadpoles housed together are accessioned as one group.

• Colonial species, such as coral or eusocial insects (e.g., some species of bees or ants).

Your institution receives a piece of coral. Since the coral is in one piece, you accession it as a

group of one. You make a note of the dimensions or mass of the piece to give an estimate of

colony size, since it is not possible to count individual animals in the colony. In the inventory,

the colony counts as one animal. When a section of the coral breaks off, you accession that

new piece as a new colony.

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• A self-sustaining, breeding group of small rodents or insects.

Your institution has a large number of Cairo spiny mice. No daily count is made, though births

and deaths increase and decrease the count. A census is taken periodically, and the new

count is recorded by sex and life stage. Exact counts are made whenever possible – for

example, when the group is moved to a new enclosure.

• Young born to several females of the same species or subspecies and raised together without

means of identifying which offspring were born to which mother.

A flock of 3.6 peafowl raise 25 chicks this year. Identity of the hens incubating each nest,

hatch dates, and number of chicks hatched from each nest can be determined and recorded.

However, unless the chicks are caught and banded at hatching, once the mothers and chicks

join the main flock, it is no longer possible to tell which chicks belong to which females. All

chicks in the flock have the same possible parents: all the peacocks and those peahens that

incubated the nests. The chicks are accessioned as a group and are split out only when they

are banded or tagged (and are thus individually identifiable).

• Historical records for a species or subspecies for which there is insufficient information to attribute

events to specific individuals.

Some of your historical records are found as simple lists of events. Though there are dates

for all transactions, and maybe even specified vendors or recipients for those events, you

cannot create individual records for any of these animals without additional information: there

is nothing connecting any specific individual to both acquisition and disposition information. If

additional information is uncovered that makes this connection, then that individual can be

removed from the group accession and given an individual record.

Managing Group Records

Maintaining Group Records: As with individual records, group records should also be maintained and

updated. Addition of animals through births or transactions such as loans, purchases, donations, or

trades are entered as acquisitions. Subtraction of animals through deaths or transactions such as loans,

sales, donations, or trades are entered as dispositions.

Weights and lengths can be entered into a group record even if that data cannot be attributed to a specific

individual. This information is still useful in describing the overall condition of group members, although

care should be given to describe the animal that the measurement came from. For example, is the animal

a juvenile or a breeding adult? Is it healthy, or sickly? Alternatively, average and/or median

measurements can be entered into the record to give an indication of what size a "normal" individual

might be. In this case, notes should include the maximum and minimum measurements, and how many

animals were measured to calculate the average or median.

Censuses: Groups should be censused at regular intervals - ideally, no longer than one inter-birth

interval. Institutions should establish and follow a census schedule for each group. An inventory must be

done at least once yearly (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.1) but the frequency at which a group is

censused depends on species biology, husbandry protocols, and animal welfare. For species in which

births/hatches and deaths tend to go undetected, or for species that have high fecundity and mortality

(which makes counting every animal very difficult or impossible), census data should be obtained more

frequently than for species with longer inter-birth intervals. These more frequent censuses should not be

undertaken when intrusion on the group has a negative effect on the welfare of the group, e.g., disruption

of maternal care.

Censuses should provide as much detail as possible by recording numbers in distinctive life stages (such

as newborn, immature, adult) and/or sex ratio (such as male, female, unknown/undetermined). If the

census count is estimated, the estimation method and (when possible) the accuracy of the estimate

should be included. When updating the sex ratio, who sexed the animals and how they were sexed

should also be recorded.

Splitting And Combining (Merging) Groups: Splitting animals from groups and combining groups together

are realities of group management. Animals may be removed to create additional groups, or perhaps new

animals are received from another institution. When new groups are created, new group records also

need to be created. However, if the entire group moves to a new location (such as a different tank), it

retains the same accession number, and notation of the change in location is made.

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When a single group is split into two or more groups, one of the new groups keeps the original accession

number and the others are assigned new accession numbers. This is also true if a portion of a group is

sent to another institution: the subgroup making the transfer must have an accession number distinct

from that of the main group. The accession number(s) for the new group(s) should follow institutional

procedures for the assignment of new accession numbers. Note of the new group accession number(s)

should appear in the originating group record, and the new group accession record(s) should contain the

originating group number. The reason for the split should be entered into both the originating and new

group records.

When two or more groups combine to form a larger group, all but one of the groups are deaccessioned

and their counts brought to zero. Notes in all the group records should indicate why the groups were

merged, as well as the accession numbers of all groups involved – both the closed (empty) groups and

the remaining group.

In all cases of splits and merges, the date of creation of the new record should be the same as the date of

removal from the previous group or individual. Detailed notes should explain the reasons for all splits and

merges.

Merging Individuals Into Groups and Splitting Individuals From Groups: Good husbandry dictates the use

of identification methods that allow animals to be tracked as individuals whenever possible (AZA

Accreditation Standard 1.4.3). Thus, most institutions initially accession newly-acquired animals as

individual animals with individual identifiers.

Despite the best intentions, individual identification sometimes becomes impossible. For example, birds in

large aviaries lose their bands; small frogs in a large terrarium die and decompose without being noticed.

When individual identification of several of the animals in the group is lost and can’t be resolved in a

reasonable amount of time, it is best to move all potentially unidentifiable animals to a group record, by

either creating a new group or merging them into an existing group. As with splitting and merging groups,

the group record should contain the identities of the originating individuals and the individual records

should show the new group identity. If the animals in the group ever become individually identifiable

again, they can be split back to individual records to better capture demographic information. If this

occurs, new accession numbers are generally needed for the new individual records since it is rarely

possible to know which old individual record would apply to the newly identifiable group member.

Conversely, if one or more group members become identifiable, for example, the previously unbanded

young of the year are caught up and banded, they should be split from the group record and given

individual accessions. The group record should include the individual numbers assigned, and the records

of all individuals should show the number of the originating group. In the case of new individual records,

information particular to the animal being given the individual record (if known) should be transferred to

the individual record. This includes birth date, origin, parent identification, etc. As in the cases of splitting

and merging groups, the date of creation of the new record is the same as the date of removal from the

previous group or individual, and detailed notes should explain the reasons for all changes in accession

type.

Transfers Between Institutions: When accessioning a number of animals that were received from another

institution, the new animals should be accessioned using the same type of record that the sending

institution used, regardless of how the animals will ultimately be managed. If a group is received but the

members will be managed as individuals, they should be accessioned as a group first, then split out as

individuals. Similarly, if a number of individuals are received but the plan is to manage them as a group,

they should be accessioned as individuals, then merged into a group. Although this is an extra step in the

accession process, it allows the records from both institutions to more seamlessly link.

Removing Individuals From Historical Group Records: The decision of whether to use individual or group

accession for historical records should be made thoughtfully and carefully. As detailed above, group

accession should be used if there is insufficient information to create an accurate individual record. The

use of group accession is preferable to the inclusion of “best guess” information, i.e. fiction, to fill the

information necessary to complete an individual record.

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If additional information is later found that allows the creation of an individual record for one of the

members of a historical group record, the procedure for removal from the group is different from that for

current records. This situation is treated differently because the historical individual was not truly part of a

group accession – the information necessary for a complete individual record was merely not known and

the group accession was used “temporarily” until the required information was found or learned. For this

reason, the individual should NOT be split from the group, but all reference to the individual should

instead be deleted entirely from the group, as if it were never part of the group. This will allow the

individual record to begin with the initial acquisition (instead of the date of removal from a group) and will

include the animal’s entire history in one record. It also prevents inflation of inventory numbers by

eliminating the possible duplication of the same information in both the group and the individual records.

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Appendix C: Guidelines for Creating and Sharing Animal and

Collection Records

Developed by the AZA Institutional Data Management Scientific Advisory Group

Original Publication Date: 5 Sept 2007

Publication Revision Date: 23 June 2014

The goal of maintaining a centralized, compiled record for each animal cared for in a zoo or aquarium is

ideal, however, oftentimes, information belonging in an animal record is spread across many departments

and may originate with any member of the animal care staff. Therefore, it is important for zoos and

aquariums to have a formal method for collecting or linking various pieces of information into the official

records and that the roles and responsibilities for each named record type are clearly defined in written

protocols for the reporting, recording, distribution, storage, and retrieval processes; there should also be a

stated process of review for the accuracy and completeness of these records. For example, a

recording/reporting protocol would state who reports births or deaths, to whom they are reported, in what

manner and in what time frame they are reported, who officially records the information, and who reviews

the resulting record for accuracy and completeness. Then, the maintenance and archiving protocol would

state where the record is to be filed, who may have access, and how long the record is to be maintained

before being archived or disposed of.

Information contained in animal records is essential not only to the immediate care of the individual

animal but also as pooled data to manage larger concerns (e.g., providing norms for species-related

veterinary and population management decisions, evidence of compliance with laws and regulations,

showing trends in populations on every level from institutional to global, etc.). No matter what its use, it is

critical for the information contained in an animal record to be factual, clear, complete, and documented.

Because zoos and aquariums vary greatly in size and organizational structure, it is impossible to set

defined procedures that would be applicable to all; therefore the following guidelines for creating and

sharing animal records have been developed to assist with the establishment of written policies that best

fit their own internal structure and protocols.

Animal and Collection Records – Definitions and Examples

The AZA Institutional Data Management Scientific Advisory Group (IDMAG) defines an animal record as:

“data, regardless of physical form or medium, providing information about individual animals, groups of

animals, or samples or parts thereof”. An animal’s record may include, but is not limited to, information

about its provenance, history, daily care, activities, and condition; some may originate in non-animal care

departments. Some examples of animal records are:

• transaction documents (including proof of legal ownership, purchase contracts, etc.)

• identification information

• reports of collection changes (including in-house moves)

• pedigrees/lineages

• veterinary information, including images, test results, etc.

• nutrition and body condition information

• information on sampling and parts/products distribution

In addition, the IDMAG defines collection records as: “information, evidence, rationalizations about an

animal collection as a whole that may supplement or explain information contained in an animal record”.

Collection records may include, but are not limited to, documentation of collection decisions and changes,

evidence of structural change at the institution, evidence of building name changes, and documentation of

institution level or unit level husbandry protocols and changes. Some examples of collection records are:

• collection plans

• permits

• annual inventories (which include reconciliation with the previous year)

• area journals/notebooks (including information to/from/between other animal care staff)

• keeper reports

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• animal management protocols (e.g., species hand-rearing protocols, special care or treatments,

etc.)

• enclosure maps/trees

• enclosure/exhibit information (monitoring, maintenance, modifications, etc.)

• research plans and published papers

Animal and Collection Records - Development

It is recommended that each zoo and aquarium develop written policies and procedures, applicable to all

staff involved with animal care, that:

• define the types of records that are required.

For example, daily keeper reports might be required from the keeper staff and weekly

summaries of activities might be required from the animal curator and senior veterinarian.

• define the information that is to be included in each type of record.

Following the example above, the institution would state the specific types of information to

be recorded on the daily keeper report and the weekly summaries.

• define the primary location where each record can be found.

For example, if a zoo does not employ a nutritionist, the policy or procedures might state that

animal diet information will be found in keeper daily reports, curator-developed daily diets,

and/or veterinarian-prescribed treatment diets.

• assign responsibility for the generation of each record type and set time limits for the their

creation.

For example, keepers might be held responsible for producing daily reports by the start of the

next day and curators might be held responsible for producing weekly summaries by the

Tuesday of the following week.

• define a process to review the accuracy of each record type and assign responsibility for that

review process.

For example, the identity of who will review each type of record, the date of reviews, and the

review/correction processes might be included in the policy.

• define a process to identify official records and assign responsibility for the recording of, or linking

of, information into these records.

For example, the identity of who will be responsible for placing information into the official

records and the processes of how to identify official records might be included in the policy.

• ensure entries in official records are never erased or deleted.

For example, if an entry is determined to be erroneous, rather than deleting it, the entry

should be amended and an audit trail should be created that identifies what data was

changed, who made the change, the date it was changed, and the reason for the change.

• ensure records relating to specific animals in the collection, including the records of non--animal

care departments, are permanently archived as part of the animal’s record.

For example, if your zoo or aquarium’s records retention schedules differ from this

recommendation every attempt should be made to exempt these records from schedules

requiring their destruction.

Animal and Collection Records – Sharing of Information

Each zoo and aquarium should assess the ownership of their animal and collection records and

determine the rights of employees and outside entities to the information contained in them. It is

recommended that each zoo and aquarium develop written policies and procedures for the distribution

and/or availability of the animal and collection records that:

• identify who has access to animal and collection records and under what conditions.

For example, animal care staff whose duties require a direct need for information about

specific animals or collection of animals should be identified as individuals who are allowed

access to any or specified records, regardless of who created them or when they were

created.

• assign responsibility for the distribution, archiving and retrieval of each record type.

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For example, the recordkeeper or registrar might be held responsible for maintaining all past

and current transaction documents and the curator might be held responsible for maintaining

the daily keeper reports from his/her section.

• define a notification system that specifies what information will be provided in the notification, who

will be notified, the date they will be notified by, and the mechanism that will be used to ensure

the notification is communicated appropriately.

For example, the shipment of an animal might require that written notice be made to the

senior keeper in the animal’s area, the curator, and the veterinarian at least 30 days prior to

the move, and identifies the animal by group or individual identification/accession number,

sex, and tag/transponder number, etc.

• define where each record type (stored or archived) is available and what format (paper or digital)

it is in.

For example, all original animal transaction documents might be kept in the registrar’s office

in fire-proof file cabinets but copies of the Animal Data Transfer Forms are kept in the

appropriate keeper area.

• define a system for obtaining necessary information such that the information is available

regardless of department and regardless of staffing issues.

For example, keeper daily reports might be maintained in an electronic database run on the

institution’s network, to which all animal care staff members have at least read-only access.

Implementation of these Recommendations

Well-written, consistent data-recording protocols and clear lines of communication will increase the quality

of animal records and should be implemented by all institutions, regardless of technical resources. While

the best option for availability of information is an electronic database system run on a computer network

(intranet) to which all animal care staff members have unrestricted access, the above recommendations

may also be adopted by zoos and aquariums without full electronic connections.

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Appendix D: AZA Policy on Responsible Population Management

PREAMBLE

The stringent requirements for AZA accreditation, and high ethical standards of professional conduct, are

unmatched by similar organizations and far surpass the United States Department of Agriculture’s Animal

and Plant Health Inspection Service’s requirements for licensed animal exhibitors. Every AZA member

must abide by a Code of Professional Ethics (https://www.aza.org/code-of-ethics

). In order to continue

these high standards, AZA-accredited institutions and certified related facilities should make it a priority,

when possible, to acquire animals from and transfer them to other AZA member institutions, or members

of other regional zoo associations that have professionally recognized accreditation programs.

AZA-accredited institutions and certified related facilities cannot fulfill their important missions of

conservation, education, and science without live animals. Responsible management and the long-term

sustainability of living animal populations necessitates that some individuals be acquired and transferred,

reintroduced or even humanely euthanized at certain times. The acquisition and transfer of animals

should be prioritized by the long-term sustainability needs of the species and AZA-managed populations

among AZA-accredited and certified related facilities, and between AZA member institutions and non-AZA

entities with animal care and welfare standards aligned with AZA. AZA member institutions that acquire

animals from the wild, directly or through commercial vendors, should perform due diligence to ensure

that such activities do not have a negative impact on species in the wild. Animals should only be acquired

from non-AZA entities that are known to operate legally and conduct their business in a manner that

reflects and/or supports the spirit and intent of the AZA Code of Professional Ethics as well as this Policy.

I. INTRODUCTION

This AZA Policy on Responsible Population Management provides guidance to AZA members to:

1. Assure that animals from AZA member institutions and certified related facilities are not transferred to

individuals or organizations that lack the appropriate expertise or facilities to care for them [see taxa

specific appendices (in development)],

2. Assure that the health and conservation of wild populations and ecosystems are carefully considered

as appropriate,

3. Maintain a proper standard of conduct for AZA members during acquisition and transfer/reintroduction

activities, including adherence to all applicable laws and regulations,

4. Assure that the health and welfare of individual animals is a priority during acquisition and

transfer/reintroduction activities, and

5. Support the goals of AZA’s cooperatively managed populations and associated Animal Programs

[Species Survival Plans

(SSPs), Studbooks, and Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs)].

This AZA Policy on Responsible Population Management will serve as the default policy for AZA member

institutions. Institutions should develop their own Policy on Responsible Population Management in order

to address specific local concerns. Any institutional policy must incorporate and not conflict with the AZA

acquisition and transfer/transition standards.

II. LAWS, AUTHORITY, RECORD-KEEPING, IDENTIFICATION AND DOCUMENTATION

The following must be considered with regard to the acquisition or transfer/management of all living

animals and specimens (their living and non-living parts, materials, and/or products):

1. Any acquisitions, transfers, euthanasia and reintroductions must meet the requirements of all

applicable local, state, federal and international laws and regulations. Humane euthanasia must be

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performed in accordance with the established euthanasia policy of the institution and follow the

recommendations of current AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals (2013 Edition

https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Documents/euthanasia.pdf

) or the AAZV’s Guidelines on the

Euthanasia of Non-Domestic Animals. Ownership and any applicable chain-of-custody must be

documented. If such information does not exist, an explanation must be provided regarding such

animals and specimens. Any acquisition of free-ranging animals must be done in accordance with all

local, state, federal, and international laws and regulations and must not be detrimental to the long-

term viability of the species in the wild.

2. The Director/Chief Executive Officer of the institution must have final authority for all acquisitions,

transfers, and euthanasia.

3. Acquisitions or transfers/euthanasia/reintroductions must be documented through institutional record

keeping systems. The ability to identify which animal is being transferred is very important and the

method of identifying each individual animal should be documented. Any existing documentation

must accompany all transfers. Institutional animal records data, records guidelines have been

developed for certain species to standardize the process (

https://www.aza.org/idmag-documents-and-

guidelines).

4. For some colonial, group-living, or prolific species, it may be impossible or highly impractical to

identify individual animals when these individuals are maintained in a group. These species can be

maintained, acquisitioned, transferred, and managed as a group or colony, or as part of a group or

colony.

5. If the intended use of specimens from animals either living or non-living is to create live animal(s),

their acquisition and transfer should follow the same guidelines. If germplasm is acquired or

transferred with the intention of creating live animal(s), ownership of the offspring must be clearly

defined in transaction documents (e.g., breeding loan agreements).

Institutions acquiring, transferring or otherwise managing specimens should consider current and

possible future uses as new technologies become available. All specimens from which nuclear DNA

could be recovered should be carefully considered for preservation as these basic DNA extraction

technologies already exist.

6. AZA member institutions must maintain transaction documents (e.g., confirmation forms, breeding

agreements) which provide the terms and conditions of animal acquisitions, transfers and loans,

including documentation for animal parts, products and materials. These documents should require

the potential recipient or provider to adhere to the AZA Policy on Responsible Population

Management, and the AZA Code of Professional Ethics, and must require compliance with the

applicable laws and regulations of local, state, federal, and international authorities.

7. In the case of animals (living or non-living) and their parts, materials, or products (living or non-living)

held on loan, the owner’s written permission should be obtained prior to any transfer and documented

in the institutional records.

8. AZA SSP and TAG necropsy and sampling protocols should be accommodated.

9. Some governments maintain ownership of the species naturally found within their borders. It is

therefore incumbent on institutions to determine whether animals they are acquiring or transferring

are owned by a government entity, foreign or domestic, and act accordingly by reviewing the

government ownership policies available on the AZA website. In the case of government owned

animals, proposals for and/or notifications of transfers must be sent to the species manager for the

government owned species.

III. ACQUISITION REQUIREMENTS

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A. General Acquisitions

1. Acquisitions must be consistent with the mission of the institution, as reflected in its Institutional

Collection Plan, by addressing its exhibition/education, conservation, and/or scientific goals regarding

the individual or species.

2. Animals (wild, feral, and domestic) may be held temporarily for reasons such as assisting

governmental agencies or other institutions, rescue and/or rehabilitation, research, propagation or

headstarting for reintroduction, or special exhibits.

3. Any receiving institution must have the necessary expertise and resources to support and provide for

the professional care and management of the species, so that the physical, psychological, and social

needs of individual animals and species are met.

4. If the acquisition involves a species managed by an AZA Animal Program, the institution should

communicate with the Animal Program Leader and, in the case of Green SSP Programs, must

adhere to the AZA Full Participation Policy

(https://www.aza.org/assets/2332/board_approved_full_participation_26_mar_097.pdf

5. AZA member institutions should consult AZA Wildlife Conservation and Management Committee

(WCMC)-approved TAG Regional Collection Plans (RCPs), Animal Program Leaders, and AZA

Animal Care Manuals (ACMs) when making acquisition decisions.

6. AZA member institutions that work with commercial vendors that acquire animals from the wild, must

perform due diligence to assure the vendors’ collection of animals is legal and using ethical practices.

Commercial vendors should have conservation and animal welfare goals similar to those of AZA

institutions.

7. AZA member institutions may acquire animals through public donations and other non-AZA entities

when it is in the best interest of the animal and/or species.

B. Acquisitions from the Wild

Maintaining wild animal populations for exhibition, education and wildlife conservation purposes is a core

function of AZA-member institutions. AZA zoos and aquariums have saving species and conservation of

wildlife and wildlands as a basic part of their public mission. As such, the AZA recognizes that there are

circumstances where acquisitions from the wild are needed in order to maintain healthy, diverse animal

populations. Healthy, sustainable populations support the objectives of managed species programs and

the core mission of AZA members. In some cases, acquiring individuals from the wild may be a viable

option in addition to, or instead of, relying on breeding programs with animals already in human care.

Acquiring animals from the wild can result in socioeconomic benefit and environmental protection and

therefore the AZA supports environmentally sustainable/beneficial acquisition from the wild when

conservation is a positive outcome.

1. Before acquiring animals from the wild, institutions are encouraged to examine alternative sources

including other AZA institutions and other regional zoological associations or other non-AZA entities.

2. When acquiring animals from the wild, both the long-term health and welfare impacts on the wild

population as well as on individual animals must be considered. In crisis situations, when the survival

of a population is at risk, rescue decisions will be made on a case-by-case basis by the appropriate

agency and institution.

3. AZA zoos and aquariums may assist wildlife agencies by providing homes for animals born in nature

if they are incapable of surviving on their own (e.g., in case of orphaned or injured animals) or by

euthanizing the animals because they pose a risk to humans or for humane reasons.

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4. Institutions should only accept animals from the wild after a risk assessment determines the

zoo/aquarium can mitigate any potential adverse impacts on the health, care and maintenance of the

existing animals already being housed at the zoo or aquarium, and the new animals being acquired.

IV. TRANSFER, EUTHANASIA AND REINTRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS

A. Living Animals

Successful conservation and animal management relies on the cooperation of many entities, both AZA

and non-AZA. While preference is given to placing animals with AZA-accredited institutions or certified

related facilities, it is important to foster a cooperative culture among those who share AZA’s mission of

saving species and excellence in animal care.

1. AZA members should assure that all animals in their care are transferred, humanely euthanized

and/or reintroduced in a manner that meets the standards of AZA, and that animals are not

transferred to those not qualified to care for them properly. Refer to IV.12, below, for further

requirements regarding euthanasia.

2. If the transfer of animals or their specimens (parts, materials, and products) involves a species

managed by an AZA Animal Program, the institution should communicate with that Animal Program

Leader and, in the case of Green SSP Programs must adhere to the AZA Full Participation Policy

(https://www.aza.org/assets/2332/board_approved_full_participation_26_mar_097.pdf

3. AZA member institutions should consult WCMC-approved TAG Regional Collection Plans, Animal

Program Leaders, and Animal Care Manuals when making transfer decisions.

4. Animals acquired solely as a food source for animals in the institution’s care are not typically

accessioned. There may be occasions, however, when it is appropriate to use accessioned animals

that exceed population carrying capacity as feeder animals to support other animals. In some cases,

accessioned animals may have their status changed to “feeder animal” status by the institution as

part of their program for long-term sustained population management of the species.

5. In transfers to non-AZA entities, AZA members must perform due diligence and should have

documented validation, including one or more letters of reference, for example from an appropriate

AZA Professional Fellow or other trusted source with expertise in animal care and welfare, who is

familiar with the proposed recipient and their current practices, and that the recipient has the

expertise and resources required to properly care for and maintain the animals. Any recipient must

have the necessary expertise and resources to support and provide for the professional care and

management of the species, so that the physical, psychological, and social needs of individual

animals and species are met within the parameters of modern zoological philosophy and practice.

Supporting documentation must be kept at the AZA member institution (see #IV.9 below).

6. Domestic animals should be transferred in accordance with locally acceptable humane farming

practices, including auctions, and must be subject to all relevant laws and regulations.

7. AZA members must not send any non-domestic animal to auction or to any organization or individual

that may display or sell the animal at an animal auction. See certain taxa-specific appendices to this

Policy (in development) for information regarding exceptions.

8. Animals must not be sent to organizations or individuals that allow the hunting of these individual

animals; that is, no individual animal transferred from an AZA institution may be hunted. For purposes

of maintaining genetically healthy, sustainable zoo and aquarium populations, AZA-accredited

institutions and certified related facilities may send animals to non-AZA organizations or individuals

(refer to #IV.5 above). These non-AZA entities (for instance, ranching operations) should follow

appropriate ranch management practices and other conservation minded practices to support

population sustainability.

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9. Every loaning institution must annually monitor and document the conditions of any loaned

specimen(s) and the ability of the recipient(s) to provide proper care (refer to #IV.5 above). If the

conditions and care of animals are in violation of the loan agreement, the loaning institution must

recall the animal or assure prompt correction of the situation. Furthermore, an institution’s loaning

policy must not be in conflict with this AZA Policy on Responsible Population Management.

10. If living animals are sent to a non-AZA entity for research purposes, it must be a registered research

facility by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and accredited by the Association for the Assessment &

Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care, International (AAALAC), if eligible. For international

transactions, the receiving facility must be registered by that country’s equivalent body having

enforcement over animal welfare. In cases where research is conducted, but governmental oversight

is not required, institutions should do due diligence to assure the welfare of the animals during the

research.

11. Reintroductions and release of animals into the wild must meet all applicable local, state, and

international laws and regulations. Any reintroduction requires adherence to best health and

veterinary practices to ensure that non-native pathogens are not released into the environment

exposing naive wild animals to danger. Reintroductions may be a part of a recovery program and

must be compatible with the IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Group’s Reintroduction Guidelines

(http://www.iucnsscrsg.org/index.php

12. Humane euthanasia may be employed for medical reasons to address quality of life issues for

animals or to prevent the transmission of disease. AZA also recognizes that humane euthanasia may

be employed for managing the demographics, genetics, and diversity of animal populations. Humane

euthanasia must be performed in accordance with the established euthanasia policy of the institution

and follow the recommendations of current AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals (2013

Edition https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Documents/euthanasia.pdf

) or the AAZV’s Guidelines on

the Euthanasia of Non-Domestic Animals.

B. Non-Living Animals and Specimens

AZA members should optimize the use and recovery of animal remains. All transfers must meet the

requirements of all applicable laws and regulations.

1. Optimal recovery of animal remains may include performing a complete necropsy including, if

possible, histologic evaluation of tissues which should take priority over specimens’ use in

education/exhibits. AZA SSP and TAG necropsy and sampling protocols should be accommodated.

This information should be available to SSP Programs for population management.

2. The educational use of non-living animals, parts, materials, and products should be maximized, and

their use in Animal Program sponsored projects and other scientific projects that provide data for

species management and/or conservation must be considered.

3. Non-living animals, if handled properly to protect the health of the recipient animals, may be utilized

as feeder animals to support other animals as deemed appropriate by the institution.

4. AZA members should consult with AZA Animal Program Leaders prior to transferring or disposing of

remains/samples to determine if existing projects or protocols are in place to optimize use.

5. AZA member institutions should develop agreements for the transfer or donation of non-living

animals, parts, materials, products, and specimens and associated documentation, to non-AZA

entities such as universities and museums. These agreements should be made with entities that

have appropriate long term curation/collections capacity and research protocols, or needs for

educational programs and/or exhibits.

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DEFINITIONS

Acquisition: Acquisition of animals can occur through breeding (births, hatchings, cloning, and division of marine invertebrates =

“fragging”), trade, donation, lease, loan, transfer (inter- and intra-institution), purchase, collection, confiscation, appearing on zoo

property, or rescue and/or rehabilitation for release.

Annual monitoring and Due diligence: Due diligence for the health of animals on loan is important. Examples of annual monitoring

and documentation include and are not limited to inventory records, health records, photos of the recipient’s facilities, and direct

inspections by AZA professionals with knowledge of animal care. The level of due diligence will depend on professional

relationships.

AZA member institution: In this Policy “AZA member institutions” refers to AZA-accredited institutions and certified related facilities

(zoological parks and aquariums). “AZA members” may refer to either institutions or individuals.

Data sharing: When specimens are transferred, the transferring and receiving institutions should agree on data that must be

transferred with the specimen(s). Examples of associated documentation include provenance of the animal, original permits, tags

and other metadata, life history data for the animal, how and when specimens were collected and conserved, etc.

Dispose: “Dispose/Disposing of” in this document is limited to complete and permanent removal of an individual via incineration,

burying or other means of permanent destruction

Documentation: Examples of documentation include ZIMS records, “Breeding Loan” agreements, chain-of-custody logs, letters of

reference, transfer agreements, and transaction documents. This is documentation that maximizes data sharing.

Domestic animal: Examples of domestic animals may include certain camelids, cattle, cats, dogs, ferrets, goats, pigs, reindeer,

rodents, sheep, budgerigars, chickens, doves, ducks, geese, pheasants, turkeys, and goldfish or koi.

Ethics of Acquisition/Transfer/Euthanasia: Attempts by members to circumvent AZA Animal Programs in the acquisition of animals

can be detrimental to the Association and its Animal Programs. Such action may also be detrimental to the species involved and

may be a violation of the Association’s Code of Professional Ethics. Attempts by members to circumvent AZA Animal Programs in

the transfer, euthanasia or reintroduction of animals may be detrimental to the Association and its Animal Programs (unless the

animal or animals are deemed extra in the Animal Program population by the Animal Program Coordinator). Such action may be

detrimental to the species involved and may be a violation of the Association’s Code of Professional Ethics.

“Extra” or Surplus: AZA’s scientifically-managed Animal Programs, including SSPs, have successfully bred and reintroduced

critically endangered species for the benefit of humankind. To accomplish these critical conservation goals, populations must be

managed within “carrying capacity” limits. At times, the number of individual animals in a population exceeds carrying capacity, and

while meaning no disrespect for these individual animals, we refer to these individual animals as “extra” within the managed

population.

Euthanasia: Humane death. This act removes an animal from the managed population. Specimens can be maintained in museums

or cryopreserved collections. Humane euthanasia must be performed in accordance with the established euthanasia policy of the

institution and follow the recommendations of current AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals (2013 Edition

https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Documents/euthanasia.pdf

) or the AAZV’s Guidelines on the Euthanasia of Non-Domestic

Animals.

Feral: Feral animals are animals that have escaped from domestication or have been abandoned to the wild and have become wild,

and the offspring of such animals. Feral animals may be acquired for temporary or permanent reasons.

Group: Examples of colonial, group-living, or prolific species include and are not limited to certain terrestrial and aquatic

invertebrates, fish, sharks/rays, amphibians, reptiles, birds, rodents, bats, big herds, and other mammals,

Lacey act: The Lacey Act prohibits the importation, exportation, transportation, sale, receipt, acquisition or purchase of wildlife taken

or possessed in violation of any law, treaty or regulation of the United States or any Indian tribal law of wildlife law. In cases when

there is no documentation accompanying an acquisition, the animal(s) may not be transferred across state lines. If the animal was

illegally acquired at any time then any movement across state or international borders would be a violation of the Lacey Act.

Museum: It is best practice for modern zoos and aquariums to establish relationships with nearby museums or other biorepositories,

so that they can maximize the value of animals when they die (e.g., knowing who to call when they have an animal in necropsy, or

specimens for cryopreservation). Natural history museums that are members of the Natural Science Collections Alliance (NSCA)

and frozen biorepositories that are members of the International Society of Biological and Environmental Repositories (ISBER) are

potential collaborators that could help zoos find appropriate repositories for biological specimens.

Non-AZA entity: Non – AZA entities includes facilities not accredited or certified by the AZA, facilities in other zoological regions,

academic institutions, museums, research facilities, private individuals, etc.

Reintroduction: Examples of transfers outside of a living zoological population include movements of animals from zoo/aquarium

populations to the wild through reintroductions or other legal means.

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Specimen: Examples of specimens include animal parts, materials and products including bodily fluids, cell lines, clones, digestive

content, DNA, feces, marine invertebrate (coral) fragments (“frags”), germplasm, and tissues.

Transaction documents: Transaction documents must be signed by the authorized representatives of both parties, and copies must

be retained by both parties*. In the case of loans, the owner’s permission for appropriate activities should be documented in the

institutional records. This document(s) should be completed prior to any transfer. In the case of rescue, confiscation, and evacuation

due to natural disasters, it is understood that documents may not be available until after acceptance or shipping. In this case

documentation (e.g., a log) must be kept to reconcile the inventory and chain of custody after the event occurs. (*In the case of

government owned animals, notification of transfers must be sent to species manager for the government owned species).

Transfer: Transfer occurs when an animal leaves the institution for any reason. Reasons for transfer or euthanasia may include

cooperative population management (genetic, demographic or behavioral management), animal welfare or behavior management

reasons (including sexual maturation and individual management needs). Types of transfer include withdrawal through donation,

trade, lease, loan, inter- and intra-institution transfers, sale, escape, theft. Reintroduction to the wild, humane euthanasia or natural

death are other possible individual animal changes in a population.

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RECIPIENT PROFILE EXAMPLE

Example questions for transfers to non-AZA entities (from AZA-member Recipient Profile documents):

Has your organization, or any of its officers, been indicted, convicted, or fined by a State or Federal agency

for any statute or regulation involving the care or welfare of animals housed at your facility? (If yes, please

explain on a separate sheet).

Recipients agree that the specimen(s) or their offspring will not be utilized, sold or traded for any purpose

contrary to the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) Code of Ethics (enclosed)

References, other than (LOCAL ZOO/AQUARIUM) employees, 2 minimum (please provide additional

references on separate sheet):

Reference Name

Phone

Facility

Fax

Address

E-mail

City

State

Zip

Country

AZA Member?

Reference Name

Phone

Facility

Fax

Address

E-mail

City

State

Zip

Country

AZA Member?

Veterinary Information:

Veterinarian

Phone

Clinic/Practice

Fax

Address

E-mail

City

State

Zip

Country

How are animals identified at your facility? If animals are not identified at your facility, please

provide an explanation about why they are not here:

Where do you acquire and send animals? (Select all that apply)

AZA Institutions

Non-AZA Institutions

Exotic Animal Auctions

Pet Stores

Hunting Ranches

Dealers

Private Breeders

Non-hunting Game

Ranches

Entertainment Industry

Hobbyists

Research Labs

Wild

Other

What specific criteria are used to evaluate if a facility is appropriate to receive animals from you?

Please provide all of the documents listed below:

Required:

1. Please provide a brief statement of intent for the specimens requested.

2. Resumes of primary caretakers and those who will be responsible for the husbandry and management

of animals.

3. Description (including photographs) of facilities and exhibits where animals will be housed.

4. Copy of your current animal inventory.

Only if Applicable:

5. Copies of your last two USDA inspection reports (if applicable).

6. Copies of current federal and state permits.

7. Copy of your institutional acquisition/disposition policy.

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(in-house use only) In-Person Inspection of this facility (Staff member/Date, attach notes):

(Local institution: provide Legal language certifying that the information contained herein is true and

correct)

(Validity of this: This document and all materials associated will be valid for a period of 2 years

from date of signature.)

Example agreement for Receiving institution (agrees to following condition upon signing):

RECIPIENT AGREES THAT THE ANIMAL(S) AND ITS (THEIR) OFFSPRING WILL NOT BE

UTILIZED, SOLD OR TRADED FOR THE PURPOSE OF COMMERCE OR

SPORT HUNTING, OR FOR USE IN ANY STRESSFUL OR TERMINAL RESEARCH OR

SENT TO ANY ANIMAL AUCTION. RECIPIENT FURTHER AGREES THAT IN THE EVENT

THE RECIPIENT INTENDS TO DISPOSE OF AN ANIMAL DONATED BY (INSITUTION),

RECIPIENT WILL FIRST NOTIFY (INSTITUTION) OF THE IDENTITY OF THE PROPOSED

TRANSFEREE AND THE TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF SUCH DISPOSITION AND WILL

PROVIDE (INSTITUTION) THE OPPORTUNITY TO ACQUIRE THE ANIMAL(S) WITHOUT

CHARGE. IF (INSTITUTION) ELECTS NOT TO RECLAIM THE ANIMAL WITHIN TEN (10)

BUSINESS DAYS FOLLOWING SUCH NOTIFICATION, THEN, IN SUCH EVENT,

(INSTITUTION) WAIVES ANY RIGHT IT MAY HAVE TO THE ANIMAL AND RECIPIENT MAY

DISPOSE OF THE ANIMAL AS PROPOSED.

Institutional note: The text above is similar to the language most dog breeders use in their contracts when

they sell a puppy. If people can provide that protection to the puppies they place, zoos/aquariums can

provide it for animals that we place too! Some entities have been reluctant to sign it, and in that case we

revert to a loan and our institution retains ownership of the animal. Either way, we are advised of the

animal’s eventual placement and location.

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Appendix E: Recommended Quarantine Procedures

Quarantine facility: A separate quarantine facility, with the ability to accommodate mammals, birds,

reptiles, amphibians, and fish should exist. If a specific quarantine facility is not present, then newly

acquired animals should be isolated from the established collection in such a manner as to prohibit

physical contact, to prevent disease transmission, and to avoid aerosol and drainage contamination.

Such separation should be obligatory for primates, small mammals, birds, and reptiles, and attempted

wherever possible with larger mammals such as large ungulates and carnivores, marine mammals, and

cetaceans. If the receiving institution lacks appropriate facilities for isolation of large primates, pre-

shipment quarantine at an AZA or American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS)

accredited institution may be applied to the receiving institutions protocol. In such a case, shipment must

take place in isolation from other primates. More stringent local, state, or federal regulations take

precedence over these recommendations.

Quarantine length: Quarantine for all species should be under the supervision of a veterinarian and

consist of a minimum of 30 days (unless otherwise directed by the staff veterinarian). Mammals: If during

the 30-day quarantine period, additional mammals of the same order are introduced into a designated

quarantine area, the 30-day period must begin over again. However, the addition of mammals of a

different order to those already in quarantine will not have an adverse impact on the originally quarantined

mammals. Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, or Fish: The 30-day quarantine period must be closed for each of

the above Classes. Therefore, the addition of any new birds into a bird quarantine area requires that the

30-day quarantine period begin again on the date of the addition of the new birds. The same applies for

reptiles, amphibians, or fish.

Quarantine personnel: A keeper should be designated to care only for quarantined animals or a keeper

should attend quarantined animals only after fulfilling responsibilities for resident species. Equipment

used to feed and clean animals in quarantine should be used only with these animals. If this is not

possible, then equipment must be cleaned with an appropriate disinfectant (as designated by the

veterinarian supervising quarantine) before use with post-quarantine animals.

Institutions must take precautions to minimize the risk of exposure of animal care personnel to

zoonotic diseases that may be present in newly acquired animals. These precautions should include the

use of disinfectant foot baths, wearing of appropriate protective clothing and masks in some cases, and

minimizing physical exposure in some species; e.g., primates, by the use of chemical rather than physical

restraint. A tuberculin testing/surveillance program must be established for zoo/aquarium employees in

order to ensure the health of both the employees and the animal collection.

Quarantine protocol: During this period, certain prophylactic measures should be instituted. Individual

fecal samples or representative samples from large numbers of individuals housed in a limited area (e.g.,

birds of the same species in an aviary or frogs in a terrarium) should be collected at least twice and

examined for gastrointestinal parasites. Treatment should be prescribed by the attending veterinarian.

Ideally, release from quarantine should be dependent on obtaining two negative fecal results spaced a

minimum of two weeks apart either initially or after parasiticide treatment. In addition, all animals should

be evaluated for ectoparasites and treated accordingly.

Vaccinations should be updated as appropriate for each species. If the animal arrives without a

vaccination history, it should be treated as an immunologically naive animal and given an appropriate

series of vaccinations. Whenever possible, blood should be collected and sera banked. Either a 70 °C (-

94 °F) frost-free freezer or a 20 °C (-4 °F) freezer that is not frost-free should be available to save sera.

Such sera could provide an important resource for retrospective disease evaluation.

The quarantine period also represents an opportunity to, where possible, permanently identify all

unmarked animals when anesthetized or restrained (e.g., tattoo, ear notch, ear tag, etc.). Also, whenever

animals are restrained or immobilized, a complete physical, including a dental examination, should be

performed. Complete medical records should be maintained and available for all animals during the

quarantine period. Animals that die during quarantine should have a necropsy performed under the

supervision of a veterinarian and representative tissues submitted for histopathologic examination.

Quarantine procedures: The following are recommendations and suggestions for appropriate quarantine

procedures for orangutans:

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Orangutans:

Required:

1. Direct and floatation fecals

2. Vaccinate as appropriate

Strongly recommended:

1. CBC/sera profile

2. Urinalysis

3. Appropriate serology (FIP, FeLV, FIV)

4. Heartworm testing in appropriate species

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Appendix F: Ambassador (Program) Animal Policy and Position

Statement

Ambassador (Program) Animal Policy

Originally approved by the AZA Board of Directors—2003

Updated and approved by the Board—July 2008 & June 2011

The Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) recognizes many benefits for public education and,

ultimately, for conservation in ambassador animal presentations. AZA’s Conservation Education

Committee’s Ambassador Animal Position Statement summarizes the value of ambassador animal

presentations (see pages 42–44).

For the purpose of this policy, an Ambassador animal is defined as “an animal whose role includes

handling and/or training by staff or volunteers for interaction with the public and in support of institutional

education and conservation goals.” Some animals are designated as Ambassador Animals on a full-time

basis, while others are designated as such only occasionally. Ambassador Animal-related Accreditation

Standards are applicable to all animals during the times that they are designated as Ambassador

Animals.

There are three main categories of Ambassador Animal interactions:

1. On Grounds with the Ambassador Animal Inside the Exhibit/Enclosure:

a. Public access outside the exhibit/enclosure. Public may interact with animals from

outside the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., giraffe feeding, touch tanks).

b. Public access inside the exhibit/enclosure. Public may interact with animals from inside

the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., lorikeet feedings, ‘swim with’ programs, camel/pony rides).

2. On Grounds with the Ambassador Animal Outside the Exhibit/Enclosure:

a. Minimal handling and training techniques are used to present Ambassador Animals to the

public. Public has minimal or no opportunity to directly interact with Ambassador Animals

when they are outside the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., raptors on the glove, reptiles held

“presentation style”).

b. Moderate handling and training techniques are used to present Ambassador Animals to

the public. Public may be in close proximity to, or have direct contact with, Ambassador

Animals when they’re outside the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., media, fund raising, photo,

and/or touch opportunities).

c. Significant handling and training techniques are used to present Ambassador Animals to

the public. Public may have direct contact with Ambassador Animals or simply observe

the in-depth presentations when they’re outside the exhibit/enclosure (e.g., wildlife

education shows).

3. Off Grounds:

a. Handling and training techniques are used to present Ambassador Animals to the public

outside of the zoo/aquarium grounds. Public may have minimal contact or be in close

proximity to and have direct contact with Ambassador Animals (e.g., animals transported

to schools, media, fund raising events).

These categories assist staff and accreditation inspectors in determining when animals are designated as

Ambassador Animals and the periods during which the Ambassador Animal-related Accreditation

Standards are applicable. In addition, these Ambassador Animal categories establish a framework for

understanding increasing degrees of an animal’s involvement in Ambassador Animal activities.

Ambassador Animal presentations bring a host of responsibilities, including the safety and welfare of

the animals involved, the safety of the animal handler and public, and accountability for the take-home,

educational messages received by the audience. Therefore, AZA requires all accredited institutions that

make Ambassador Animal presentations to develop an institutional Ambassador Animal policy that clearly

identifies and justifies those species and individuals approved as Ambassador Animals and details their

long-term management plan and educational program objectives.

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AZA’s accreditation standards require that education and conservation messages must be an integral

component of all Ambassador Animal presentations. In addition, the accreditation standards require that

the conditions and treatment of animals in education programs must meet standards set for the remainder

of the animal collection, including species-appropriate shelter, exercise, appropriate environmental

enrichment, access to veterinary care, nutrition, and other related standards. In addition, providing

Ambassador Animals with options to choose among a variety of conditions within their environment is

essential to ensuring effective care, welfare, and management. Some of these requirements can be met

outside of the primary exhibit enclosure while the animal is involved in a program or is being transported.

For example, free-flight birds may receive appropriate exercise during regular programs, reducing the

need for additional exercise. However, the institution must ensure that in such cases, the animals

participate in programs on a basis sufficient to meet these needs or provide for their needs in their home

enclosures; upon return to the facility the animal should be returned to its species-appropriate housing as

described above.

Ambassador Animal Position Statement

Last revision 1/28/03

Re-authorized by the Board June 2011

The Conservation Education Committee (CEC) of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums supports the

appropriate use of Ambassador Animals as an important and powerful educational tool that provides a

variety of benefits to zoo and aquarium educators seeking to convey cognitive and affective (emotional)

messages about conservation, wildlife and animal welfare.

Utilizing these animals allows educators to strongly engage audiences. As discussed below, the use of

Ambassador Animals has been demonstrated to result in lengthened learning periods, increased

knowledge acquisition and retention, enhanced environmental attitudes, and the creation of positive

perceptions concerning zoo and aquarium animals.

Audience Engagement

Zoos and aquariums are ideal venues for developing emotional ties to wildlife and fostering an

appreciation for the natural world. However, developing and delivering effective educational messages in

the free-choice learning environments of zoos and aquariums is a difficult task.

Zoo and aquarium educators are constantly challenged to develop methods for engaging and teaching

visitors who often view a trip to the zoo as a social or recreational experience (Morgan & Hodgkinson,

1999). The use of Ambassador Animals can provide the compelling experience necessary to attract and

maintain personal connections with visitors of all motivations, thus preparing them for learning and

reflection on their own relationships with nature.

Ambassador Animals are powerful catalysts for learning for a variety of reasons. They are generally

active, easily viewed, and usually presented in close proximity to the public. These factors have proven to

contribute to increasing the length of time that people spend watching animals in zoo exhibits (Bitgood,

Patterson & Benefield, 1986, 1988; Wolf & Tymitz, 1981).

In addition, the provocative nature of a handled animal likely plays an important role in captivating a

visitor. In two studies (Povey, 2002; Povey & Rios, 2002), visitors viewed animals three and four times

longer while they were being presented in demonstrations outside of their enclosure with an educator

than while they were on exhibit. Clearly, the use of Ambassador Animals in shows or informal

presentations can be effective in lengthening the potential time period for learning and overall impact.

Ambassador Animals also provide the opportunity to personalize the learning experience, tailoring the

teaching session to what interests the visitors. Traditional graphics offer little opportunity for this level of

personalization of information delivery and are frequently not read by visitors (Churchman, 1985;

Johnston, 1998). For example, Povey (2002) found that only 25% of visitors to an animal exhibit read the

accompanying graphic; whereas, 45% of visitors watching the same animal handled in an educational

presentation asked at least one question and some asked as many as seven questions. Having an animal

accompany the educator allowed the visitors to make specific inquiries about topics in which they were

interested.

Knowledge Acquisition

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Improving our visitors' knowledge and understanding regarding wildlife and wildlife conservation is a

fundamental goal for many zoo educators using Ambassador Animals. A growing body of evidence

supports the validity of using Ambassador Animals to enhance delivery of these cognitive messages as

well.

• MacMillen (1994) found that the use of live animals in a zoomobile outreach program significantly

enhanced cognitive learning in a vertebrate classification unit for sixth grade students.

• Sherwood and his colleagues (1989) compared the use of live horseshoe crabs and sea stars to

the use of dried specimens in an aquarium education program and demonstrated that students

made the greatest cognitive gains when exposed to programs utilizing the live animals.

• Povey and Rios (2002) noted that in response to an open-ended survey question (“Before I saw

this animal, I never realized that . . . ”), visitors watching a presentation utilizing a Ambassador

Animal provided 69% cognitive responses (i.e., something they learned) versus 9% made by

visitors viewing the same animal in its exhibit (who primarily responded with observations).

• Povey (2002) recorded a marked difference in learning between visitors observing animals on

exhibit versus being handled during informal presentations. Visitors to demonstrations utilizing a

raven and radiated tortoises were able to answer questions correctly at a rate as much as eleven

times higher than visitors to the exhibits.

Enhanced Environmental Attitudes

Ambassador Animals have been clearly demonstrated to increase affective learning and attitudinal

change.

• Studies by Yerke and Burns (1991), and Davison and her colleagues (1993) evaluated the effect

live animal shows had on visitor attitudes. Both found their shows successfully influenced

attitudes about conservation and stewardship.

• Yerke and Burns (1993) also evaluated a live bird outreach program presented to Oregon fifth-

graders and recorded a significant increase in students' environmental attitudes after the

presentations.

• Sherwood and his colleagues (1989) found that students who handled live invertebrates in an

education program demonstrated both short and long-term attitudinal changes as compared to

those who only had exposure to dried specimens.

• Povey and Rios (2002) examined the role Ambassador Animals play in helping visitors develop

positive feelings about the care and well-being of zoo animals.

• As observed by Wolf and Tymitz (1981), zoo visitors are deeply concerned with the welfare of zoo

animals and desire evidence that they receive personalized care.

Conclusion

Creating positive impressions of aquarium and zoo animals, and wildlife in general, is crucial to the

fundamental mission of zoological institutions. Although additional research will help us delve further into

this area, the existing research supports the conclusion that Ambassador Animals are an important tool

for conveying both cognitive and affective messages regarding animals and the need to conserve wildlife

and wild places.

Acknowledgements

The primary contributors to this paper were Karen Povey and Keith Winsten, with valuable comments

provided from members of both the Conservation Education Committee and the Children's Zoo Interest

Group.

References

Bitgood, S., Patterson, D., & Benefield, A. (1986). Understanding your visitors: ten factors that influence

visitor behavior. Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums

(pp. 726–743).

Orangutan (Pongidae/Pongo) Care Manual

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138

Bitgood, S., Patterson, D., & Benefield, A. (1988). Exhibit design and visitor behavior. Environment and

Behavior, 20(4), 474–491.

Churchman, D. (1985). How and what do recreational visitors learn at zoos? Annual Proceedings of the

American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (pp.160–167).

Conway, W. (1995). Wild and zoo animal interactive management and habitat conservation. Biodiversity

and Conservation, 4, 573–594.

Davison, V. M., McMahon, L., Skinner, T. L., Horton, C. M., & Parks, B. J. (1993). Animals as actors: take

2. Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (pp. 150–

155).

Johnston, R. J. (1998). Exogenous factors and visitor behavior: a regression analysis of exhibit viewing

time. Environment and Behavior, 30(3), 322–347.

MacMillen, O. (1994). Zoomobile effectiveness: sixth graders learning vertebrate classification. Annual

Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (pp. 181–183).

Morgan, J. M., & Hodgkinson, M. (1999). The motivation and social orientation of visitors attending a

contemporary zoological park. Environment and Behavior, 31(2), 227–239.

Povey, K. D. (2002). Close encounters: the benefits of using education program animals. Annual

Proceedings of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (pp. 117–121).

Povey, K. D., & Rios, J. (2002). Using interpretive animals to deliver affective messages in zoos. Journal

of Interpretation Research, 7, 19–28.

Sherwood, K. P., Rallis, S. F., & Stone, J. (1989). Effects of live animals vs. preserved specimens on

student learning. Zoo Biology, 8, 99–104.

Wolf, R. L., & Tymitz, B. L. (1981). Studying visitor perceptions of zoo environments: a naturalistic view. In

P. J. S. Olney (Ed.), International Zoo Yearbook (pp. 49–53). Dorchester: The Zoological Society of

London.

Yerke, R., & Burns, A. (1991). Measuring the impact of animal shows on visitor attitudes. Annual

Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (pp. 532–534).

Yerke, R., & Burns, A. (1993). Evaluation of the educational effectiveness of an animal show outreach

program for schools. Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and

Aquariums (pp. 366–368).

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Appendix G: Browse List

Browse List

• Acacia (Acacia P. Mill.)

• Alder (Alnus spp.)

• Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)

• American Beech (Fagus grandifolia)

• Apple (Malus spp.)

• Arborvitae (Thuja spp.)

• Ash (Fraxinus spp.)

• Aspen (Populus spp.)

• Bamboo (Phyllostachy spp.)

• Bamboo Palm (Chamaedorea

erumpens)

• Banana (Musa spp.)

• Beech (Fagus L.)

• Birch (Betula spp.)

• Black Mulberry (Morus nigra)

• Blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis)

• Boxelder (Acer negundo)

• Butterfly Bush (Buddleia davidii)

• Carob (Ceratonia siliqua)

•

Cattails (Typha spp.)

• Corn Plant (Dracaena fragrans)

• Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster spp.)

•

Cottonwood (Populus spp.)

• Crabapple (Malus spp.)

• Daylily (Hemerocallis)

• Dogwood (Cornus spp.)

• Elaeagnus (Elaeagnus spp.)

• Elm (Ulmus spp.)

• Ficus (Ficus spp.)

•

Fig (Ficus spp.)

•

Forsythia (Forsythia spp.)

• Giant Reed Grass, Elephant, Grass,

Cane Grass (Arundo donax)

• Grape (Vitis spp.)

• Hackberry (Celtis spp.)

• Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.)

• Hazlenut (Corylus spp.)

• Hibiscus (Hibiscus spp.)

• Honeylocust (Gleditsia spp.)

• Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)

• Indian Rubber Tree (Ficus elastica)

• Kerria (Kerria spp.)

• Kudzu (Pueraria lobata)

• Linden, Basswood (Tilia spp.)

• Maple (No Red Maple) (Acer spp.)

• Mock Orange (Philadelphus virginalis)

• Mulberry (Morus spp.)

• Nasturtium (Trapaeoleum majus)

• Norway Maple (Acer platanoides)

• Oak (No Red Oak) (Quercus spp.)

• Oregon Grape Holly (Mahonia spp.)

•

Pear (Pyrus spp.)

•

Pine (Pinus spp.)

• Poplar (Populus spp.)

• Raspberry (Rubus spp.)

• Red Mulberry (Morus rubra)

• Red Tipped Photinia (Photinia x fraseri)

• Redbud (Cercis canadensis)

• Rose (Rosa spp.)

• Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum)

• Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

•

Sweet Gum (Liquidambar spp.)

• Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis)

•

Tipu Tree, Pride of Bolivia (Tipuana tipu)

• Tulip Tree (Liriodendron L.)

• Weeping Fig (Ficus benjamina)

• Weeping Willow (Salix x sepulcralis

Simonkai)

• White Mulberry (Morus alba L.)

• Willow (Salix spp.)

• Yellow Grove Bamboo (Phyllostachys

aureosulcata)

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Appendix H: Target Serum and Tissue Nutrient Evaluations

There are a few published reports on serum nutrient concentrations in orangutans. The data from ISIS

are not included here as they represent both healthy and ill zoo orangutans.

Total cholesterol, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL)

concentrations (mg/dl) in serum of free-ranging orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus).

Reference

Gender

Cholesterol

Triglyceride

HDL

LDL

Kilbourn et al., 2003

range

77 - 1,125

27 - 161

n/a

Schmidt et al., 2006

mean ⍏ SEM

male 10 167.1 ± 11.7 77.6 ± 9.8 47.6 ± 4.8 94.9 ± 7.5

Schmidt et al., 2006

mean ⍏ SEM

female 10 118.0 ± 11.7 71.6 ± 9.8 27.6 ± 4.8 72.4 ± 7.5

Schmidt et al., 2006

range

87 - 236

37 - 181

15 - 82

38 - 140

Serum vitamin concentrations in wild and zoo orangutans.

Reference

Retinol

(µg/dl)

Retinyl

Palmitate

(µg/dl)

-Tocoperol

(µg/dl)

-Tocopherol

(µg/dl)

25(OH)D

(ng/ml)

1,25(OH)D3

(pg/ml)

Kilbourn et al., 2003

(wild, range)

- 87

n/a

- 55

- 488

n/a

Crissey et al., 1999

(zoo; mean ± SEM)

69.2 ± 16.0

n=7

4.4 ± 2.5*

n=7

23.1 ± 2.0

n=7

757.9 ± 85.9

n=7

15.6 ± 3.9

n=8

22.6 ± 6.2

n=8

*Some values were not detectable.

Serum mineral concentrations in wild and zoo orangutans (ppm).

Reference

Kilbourn et al., 2003

(wild, range)

88 - 125

n = 33

0.11 - 0.16

n = 33

1.48 - 3.37

n = 33

0.55 - 4.76

n = 33

142 - 250

n = 33

Crissey et al., 2001

(zoo; mean ± SEM)

101.7 ± 6.93

n = 7

0.6 ± 0.03

n = 7

1.4 ± 0.16

n = 7

2.8 ± 0.36

n = 7

185.9 ± 17.52

n = 7

Serum mineral concentrations in wild and zoo orangutans (ppm).

Reference

Kilbourn et al., 2003 (wild, range)

10.1 - 44.5

n = 33

0.06 - 0.62

n = 33

0.22 - 0.33

n = 33

73.2 - 195

n = 33

0.5 - 2.0

n = 33

Crissey et al., 2001

(zoo; mean ± SEM)

25.5 ± 2.72

n = 7

0.6 ± 0.03

n = 7

1.4 ± 0.16

n = 7

2.8 ± 0.36

n = 7

185.9 ± 17.52

n = 7

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Appendix I: Helpful Husbandry Behaviors to Train

• Station: Orangutan holds place at a specified location, which may be identified with a station marker

such as a colored piece of PVC tubing that is distinguishable from other markers in use.

• Shifting: Orangutan moves from one location to another upon command. This may be prompted with

station markers, laser pointers, or other indicators.

• Body present: Orangutan provides access to specific body parts through a mesh barrier to allow a

keeper’s touch or visual inspection without interference. Common body parts that are easily trained

are shoulder, head, ear, arm, leg, back, and open mouth.

• Injection: Orangutan is trained to tolerate the presence of a syringe and needle to the point of the

blunted end touching his shoulder. This training can progress to the point of faux injections that

simulate real medical procedures, and actual injections

Voluntary cooperation in these behaviors reduces the need for physical restraint and/or anesthesia, and

the accompanying risks associated with those events (Bloomsmith, 1992; Reinhardt et al., 1995). The

following trained behaviors are recommended for advanced orangutan husbandry programs:

• Blood draws and injections: Some facilities are designed to accommodate blood draws by the use

of a steel or strong plastic pipe sleeve attached to enclosure barriers. Orangutans can be trained to

insert their arms into the sleeve and allow blood draws or injections. These sleeves can be removed

when not in use (Coe et al., 2001). The use of the sleeve allows the staff access to the orangutan in a

relatively safe manner. Orangutans can also be trained to present body parts against a mesh barrier

to accommodate vaccines, anesthesia, and insulin injections.

• Medical procedures: Orangutans can be trained to cooperate during medical procedures, such as

presenting the chest for the use of a stethoscope, or an ear for the use of a thermometer.

Additionally, orangutans can be trained to present their abdomen so that ultrasounds can be

performed. Cardiac ultrasound, blood pressure, and chest x-ray are additional behaviors that have

been trained in orangutans.

• Scales: Weighing individuals regularly can help detect illness or physiological changes that can affect

overall health. It also ensures more accurate drug dosing. Weighing stations may be built-in features

within transfer areas, or freestanding scales may be rolled into place. A scale attached to a climbing

rope can also be used. Using these approaches, weights can be obtained without sedating the

orangutans (Coe et al., 2001).

• Urine collection: A regular collection of urine can be used to monitor the reproductive cycle, stress,

and other health indicators of orangutans. Urine collection can be facilitated by the construction of a

trough or specialized drain that orangutans can be trained to use (Coe et al., 2001), or by providing

areas where orangutans can be trained to urinate on command into a small receptacle held by the

trainer.

• Maternal behavior: Numerous behaviors can be trained to encourage appropriate maternal

behaviors toward an infant orangutan, and/or help a female develop and learn appropriate behaviors

with some assistance and reinforcement. These behaviors should be trained proactively with females

prior to and during pregnancy, as well as with other females who could serve as surrogate mothers if

needed. Please contact the AZA Orangutan SSP Husbandry Advisor for details.