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MHR A
STYLE
GUIDE
A HANDBOOK FOR
AUTHORS AND EDITORS
LONDON
modern humanities research association
2013
THIRD EDITION
is third edition of the Style Guide has been edited by a subcommittee
of the MHRA consisting of Brian Richardson (Chair), Robin Aizlewood,
Derek Connon, Malcolm Cook, Gerard Lowe, Graham Nelson, and
Chloe Paver.
e Style Guide may be ordered through the MHRA’s website at
www.style.mhra.org.uk. It is also available, without the list of proof
correction signs, online and without charge at this address.
Further information about the activities of the Association and
individual membership may be obtained from the Membership
Secretary, Dr Jessica Goodman, Clare College, Trinity Lane, Cambridge
, UK, email membership@mhra.org.uk, or from the website at:
www.mhra.org.uk.
Parts of this work may be reproduced as permitted under legal provisions
for fair dealing (or fair use) for the purposes of research, private study,
criticism, or review, or when a relevant collective licensing agreement is
in place. All other reproduction requires the written permission of the
copyright holder who may be contacted at righ[email protected].
ISBN ----
© Modern Humanities Research Association,
First edition .
Second edition . ird edition .
Reprinted with minor corrections .
INTRODUCTION 1
A QUICK GUIDE TO MHRA STYLE 3
1 PREPARING MATERIAL FOR PUBLICATION
1.1 Introduction 9
1.2 General
1.2.1 Preferred Styles 9
1.2.2 Electronic Submission 10
1.2.3 Checking 10
1.3 Preparation of Copy
1.3.1 General 10
1.3.2 Corrections, Insertions, and Comments 11
1.3.3 Fonts and Capitals 11
1.3.4 Headings and Subdivisions 12
1.3.5 Dashes 12
1.3.6 Running Heads 13
1.3.7 Numbering of Pages 13
1.3.8 Typing Conventions 13
1.3.9 Special Characters and Diacritics,
and Non-Latin Scripts 14
1.3.10 Notes 14
1.3.11 Illustrations 15
1.3.12 Tables 16
1.3.13 Cross-references 17
1.4 Author-typeset Formats
1.4.1 General 17
1.4.2 Direct Electronic Submission 17
1.5 Order of Parts of a Book 17
CONTENTS
2 SPELLING AND USAGE
2.1 Preferred Spellings 20
2.2 Diacritics 20
2.3 Hyphens 21
2.4 Quotations 23
2.5 Possessives
2.5.1 General 23
2.5.2 Proper Names 23
2.6 Plurals 24
3 NAMES
3.1 Place-names
3.1.1 General 26
3.1.2 Towns and Cities 26
3.1.3 Countries 27
3.2 Academic Institutions 27
3.3 Personal Names
3.3.1 Celtic Names 27
3.3.2 Foreign Names 28
3.3.3 Transliteration of Slavonic Names 28
4 ABBREVIATIONS
4.1 General 30
4.2 Titles 30
4.3 In Footnotes and Endnotes 31
4.4 Use of Full Stop 31
4.5 American States 32
5 PUNCTUATION
5.1 Commas 33
5.2 Dashes 34
5.3 Parentheses and Brackets 35
5.4 Punctuation in Headings 36
5.5 Punctuation with Italics 36
5.6 Quotation Marks 36
iv
v
5.7 Ellipses and Square Brackets 36
6 CAPITALS
6.1 General 38
6.2 Titles and Dignities 39
6.3 Movements and Periods 39
6.4 Titles of Books and Other Writings 40
6.5 Compounds 41
6.6 Accented Capitals 42
6.7 Small Capitals 42
7 ITALICS
7.1 General 43
7.2 Foreign Words and Quotations 43
7.3 Titles of Books and Other Writings 44
7.4 Titles of Films, Musical Compositions, and
Works of Art 44
7.5 Titles of Exhibitions 45
8 DATES, NUMBERS, CURRENCY, AND WEIGHTS
AND MEASURES
8.1 Dates 46
8.2 Numbers 47
8.3 Roman Numerals 48
8.4 Currency 48
8.5 Weights and Measures 49
9 QUOTATIONS AND QUOTATION MARKS
9.1 General 50
9.2 In Languages Other than English 50
9.3 Short Quotations 50
9.4 Long Quotations 52
9.5 Quotations from Plays 53
9.6 Omissions 54
9.7 Copyright and Permissions 55
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
vi
10 FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES
10.1 General 56
10.2 Methods of Limiting Notes 56
10.3 Position and Numbering 57
11 REFERENCES
11.1 General 58
11.2 Forms of Reference
11.2.1 General 59
11.2.2 Books 59
11.2.3 Chapters or Articles in Books 64
11.2.4 Articles in Journals 66
11.2.5 Articles in Newspapers and Magazines 68
11.2.6 eses and Dissertations 69
11.2.7 Plays and Long Works 69
11.2.8 e Bible 70
11.2.9 Manuscripts 70
11.2.10 Private Correspondence 71
11.2.11 DOIs and URLs 71
11.2.12 Online Articles 72
11.2.13 Ebooks 73
11.2.14 Online Databases 73
11.2.15 Social Media 74
11.2.16 Recordings, Films, Digital Media, and
Soware 75
11.2.17 Broadcasts 76
11.2.18 Works of Art 76
11.3 Later References 77
11.4 Citation by the Author–Date System 78
11.5 Cross-references 80
11.6 Bibliographies 80
12 PREPARATION OF INDEXES
12.1 General 83
12.2 What to Index 83
vii
12.3 Organization 83
12.4 Style 85
13 USEFUL WORKS OF REFERENCE 87
14 PROOF CORRECTION 89
INDEX 100
Style guides cover matters such as spellings, punctuation, and
bibliographical references in writing that is meant for publication,
whether in print or electronic form. e MHRA Style Guide is intended
primarily for use in connection with the Modern Humanities Research
Association’s own books and periodicals, and it opens with a summary
of the main points to be noted by authors using MHRA style. It is hoped
that it will also be widely useful to students and other authors, to editors,
and to publishers of texts written mainly in English.
e Style Guide is the successor to the MHRA Style Book, rst
published in under the editorship of A. S. Maney and R. L. Smallwood,
and revised in later editions. is third edition takes account of
comments and suggestions made by users of the second edition of
, and we are grateful for these. It has been updated in order to take
account of the increased use of electronic means of text preparation,
submission, and publication. Some sections have been revised for the
sake of clarity and completeness. Material that seemed redundant has
been removed; in particular, the former chapter on the preparation of
theses has been deleted because research students can now expect their
university to supply them with guidelines on the institution’s preferred
style.
Any comments and suggestions for amendments or additions will
be welcomed and may be sent to style@mhra.org.uk.
INTRODUCTION
A QUICK GUIDE TO MHRA STYLE
is section of the Style Guide summarizes the main features to be
noted by authors who are following MHRA style. A full discussion will
be found in the chapters and sections indicated.
SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION
2.1 In the case of verbs ending in -ize or -ise and their derivatives,
the forms in -ize, -ization, etc. (e.g. civilize, civilization) are used
in MHRA periodicals. Either system may be used in books
published by the MHRA.
2.3 Forms that are attributive and have a single main stress are
hyphenated, while predicative and other forms having two main
stresses are not hyphenated:
a well-known fact the facts are well known
a tenth-century manuscript in the tenth century
Adverbs ending in -ly and other polysyllabic adverbs are not
hyphenated to a following adjective or participle:
a recently published novel
ever increasing quantities
4.4 A contracted form of a word that ends with the same letter as the
full form, including plural -s, is not followed by a full stop:
Dr, Jr, Mme, Mr, Mrs, St, vols
5.1 (c) In an enumeration of three or more items, it is the preferred
style in MHRA periodicals to insert commas aer all but the
last item, to give equal weight to each enumerated element, as in:
‘e University has departments of French, German, Spanish,
and Portuguese.’ e comma aer the penultimate item may be
omitted in books published by the MHRA, as long as the sense
is clear.
ELLIPSES
5.7 In quotations, points indicating an ellipsis (i.e. the omission
of a portion of the text) should be enclosed within square
brackets:
Her enquiries […] were not very favourably answered.
NUMBERS
8.2 In expressing inclusive numbers falling within the same
hundred, the last two gures should be given, including any
zero in the penultimate position:
–, –, –, –, –
QUOTATIONS AND QUOTATION MARKS
9.3 Short quotations (up to forty words or no more than two lines of
verse) should be enclosed in single quotation marks and run on
with the main text. If a verse quotation includes a line division,
this should be marked with a spaced upright stroke ( | ). For a
quotation within a quotation, double quotation marks should
be used. Unless the quotation forms a complete sentence and is
separated from the preceding passage by a punctuation mark,
the nal full stop should be outside the closing punctuation
mark.
9.4 Long quotations (over forty words or more than two lines of
verse) should be broken o by an increased space from the
preceding and following lines of typescript. ey should not
be enclosed within quotation marks.
FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES
10.1 All notes should end with full stops.
10.3 A note reference number should follow any punctuation except
a dash, which it should precede.
FIRST REFERENCES
11.2.2 BOOKS
Tom McArthur, Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning
and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, ), p. .
Jean Starobinski, Montaigne in Motion, trans. by Arthur
Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ),
p. .
Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ed. by Joseph R. Strayer and
others, vols (New York: Scribner, –), (), .
Carlos Fuentes, Aura, ed. by Peter Standish, Durham Modern
Language Series: Hispanic Texts, (Durham: University of
Durham, ), pp. – (p. ).
Boswell: e English Experiment 1785–1789, ed. by Irma S. Lustig
and Frederick A. Pottle, e Yale Edition of the Private Papers
of James Boswell (London: Heinemann; New York: McGraw
Hill, ), pp. –.
11.2.3 CHAPTERS OR ARTICLES IN BOOKS
Martin Elsky, ‘Words, ings, and Names: Jonson’s Poetry
and Philosophical Grammar’, in Classic and Cavalier: Essays
on Jonson and the Sons of Ben, ed. by Claude J. Summers and
Ted-Larry Pebworth (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press,
), pp. – (p. ).
11.2.4 ARTICLES IN JOURNALS
Richard Hillyer, ‘In More than Name Only: Jonson’s “To Sir
Horace Vere”’, MLR, (), -.
Robert F. Cook, ‘Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édiant?’,
Olifant, (), – (pp. –).
Issue numbers are required only where each issue starts at
page .
PLAYS AND LONG WORKS
11.2.7 e Merchant of Venice, . . ; e Faerie Queene, . . ;
Paradise Lost, . –; Aeneid, . –; Inferno, . .
THE BIBLE
11.2.8 Isaiah . ; Corinthians .-.
ONLINE PUBLICATIONS
11.2.12 Els Jongeneel, ‘Art and Divine Order in the Divina Commedia’,
Literature and eology, (), – <http://dx.doi.org/./
litthe/frm>
Steve Sohmer, ‘e Lunar Calendar of Shakespeare’s King Lear’,
Early Modern Literary Studies, . () <http://purl.oclc.org/
emls/-/sohmlear.htm> [accessed January ] (para.
of )
Kent Bach, ‘Performatives’, in Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy <http://www.rep.routledge.com> [accessed October
]
LATER REFERENCES
11.3 In all references to a book or article aer the rst, the shortest
intelligible form should be used. is will normally be the
author’s name, or a short-title reference if appropriate, followed
by the volume (if applicable) and page reference:
McArthur, p. ; Elsky, pp. – (p. ); Dictionary of the Middle
Ages, (), .
It may be necessary, for example when more than one work by an
author has been cited, to repeat a title, in a shortened form:
McArthur, Worlds of Reference, p. .
CITATION BY THE AUTHOR–DATE SYSTEM
11.4 e author–date system requires all bibliographical references
to be placed at the end of a book, article, or thesis in alphabetical
order by names of author(s) or editor(s), followed by date of
publication, as in the following examples:
Crystal, David. . An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and
Languages, rd edn (Oxford: Blackwell)
MacAulay, Donald (ed.). . e Celtic Languages (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press)
Grady, Hugh. . ‘Falsta: Subjectivity between the Carnival
and the Aesthetic’, MLR, : –
Chadwick, H. Munro, and N. Kershaw Chadwick. –. e
Growth of Literature. vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press; repr. )
If two or more works by the same author(s) have the same
publication date, they should be arranged in alphabetical order
of title and distinguished by adding letters aer the date (e.g.
‘a’, ‘b’).
References in the text should give in parentheses the surname
of the author, the publication date of the work, and, where
necessary, a page reference, e.g. (Crystal : ). When the
author’s name is given in the text, it should not be repeated in
the reference; e.g. ‘Smith (: ) argues that […]’.
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
11.6 In an alphabetical bibliography, the surname of the author or
editor whose surname governs the alphabetical position will
precede the forename(s) or initial(s). Do not reverse the normal
order for collaborating authors or editors other than the rst
quoted.
Chadwick, H. Munro, and N. Kershaw Chadwick, e Growth
of Literature, vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
–; repr. )
Cook, Robert F., ‘Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édiant?’,
Olifant, (), –
Cook, Robert F., ‘Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édiant?’,
Olifant, (), –
Fuentes, Carlos, Aura, ed. by Peter Standish, Durham Modern
Language Series: Hispanic Texts, (Durham: University of
Durham, )
Johnson, omas H., ed., Emily Dickinson: Selected Letters, nd
edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, )
Strayer, Joseph R., and others, eds, Dictionary of the Middle Ages,
vols (New York: Scribner, –), ()
1
PREPARING MATERIAL FOR
PUBLICATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
is chapter deals with the preparation of copy for editing and
subsequent publication in any medium. Many of its principles also
hold for the form in which articles are submitted for consideration by
journal editors (see
..
). Since most publishers require authors to supply
copy in digital format, usually as an email attachment or on disk, this
chapter is written on the assumption that the reader will be using a word
processor. In this chapter, ‘typed’ means ‘prepared on a keyboard’ and
‘typescript’ refers to any form of copy produced in this way.
1.2 GENERAL
1.2.1 P S
When preparing a text for publication, the author should take due
account of the ‘Notes for Contributors’ or ‘Instructions to Authors’ of the
journal or series. ese will specify the form in which articles or book
typescripts should be submitted for consideration, and the organization
of copy in articles for publication (such as the positioning of abstracts
and details of the author’s aliation). While some publications have
their own style books or style sheets, most base their ‘Notes’ on a
common guide to style such as this Style Guide, with additional specic
requirements depending on the preference of their editors, publisher,
or printer. Contributors to the MHRA publications e Slavonic and
East European Review and e Year’s Work in Modern Language Studies
should note that each of these has certain conventions that dier
somewhat from those laid down in this Style Guide.
If your text incorporates material received from other authors,
ensure that it conforms to your own layout.
Once a text has been accepted for publication, editors will normally
ask the author to prepare a nal revised version of the text, including
corrections in conformity with the house style of the publication, in
addition to any substantive revisions recommended by readers.
1.2.2 E S
Always ask your editor what computer le formats, media, and methods
of transmission (e.g. disk, email, le upload) are acceptable if this
information does not appear in supplied guidelines. e editor will
oen express a preference for a particular word-processor format (and
graphics format where appropriate). If disks or other memory devices
are supplied, these should be identied clearly, and the name and details
of the version of the soware used should be provided.
1.2.3 C
e nal version of copy should be carefully checked before delivery. All
quotations should be checked against originals, and not merely against
previous dras of the work. Authors are responsible for the completeness
and correctness of references. Ensure that no extraneous comments
or queries are embedded in the le. Editors will normally regard the
revised version of an article as nal and may refuse to accept substantive
alterations to proofs or may charge for author corrections.
1.3 PREPARATION OF COPY
1.3.1 G
e initial submission of an article or monograph will usually be as
electronic copy. Editors will circulate the text in this form to readers
or referees. In the case of journal articles or conference papers sent
anonymously to readers, the author’s name will have to be omitted
from all pages except any cover page (which the reader will not see).
e editors may use a hard copy to indicate minor amendments and
to add instructions to the typesetter. e typesetter may require a
printed version to ensure that all parts of the copy are present in the
electronic version and to resolve any problems that may arise when
the word-processor le is converted to the typesetter’s system. Where
special characters or accents or non-Latin scripts are involved, this is
essential.
Authors should resist the temptation to overdesign their nal copy.
e increasing capacity of word processors to manipulate multiple fonts,
type sizes, and page layout enables authors to prepare copy to a standard
matching good typography, but many of these eects are incompatible
with typesetters’ systems and are lost on conversion. In particular,
1.
automatic numbering of lists, headings, and cross-references, in which
the word processor lls in the correct number, should be avoided as the
codes embedded in the computer les are specic to the word processor
and may be lost on conversion. See also . on avoiding automatic tags
or codes. Where authors wish to structure an article into sections,
conventional headings (see ..) should be used.
Double-spacing (to allow for editorial corrections) and one size of
a simple typeface should be used throughout, including footnotes or
endnotes and extended quotations. Margins of at least . cm should be
le all round and the top quarter of the rst page of the text le clear,
for a sub-editor’s additions. e rst line of each paragraph (except the
rst paragraph of a chapter, section, or article) should be indented by
one tab character; do not indent text by inserting multiple spaces. Do
not adopt the convention of starting each paragraph full le aer an
extra line-space; the space between paragraphs should be the normal
line spacing. Text should be le-justied but not fully justied. e word
processor’s automatic hyphenation must be switched o. Authors will
be aware that word processors may change spellings, punctuations, and
spacing in foreign languages.
Use a serif font such as Times New Roman to avoid confusion of
characters such as upper-case ‘I’ and lower-case ‘l’, which can look almost
identical in sans serif typefaces such as Arial (‘I’ and ‘l’ respectively).
1.3.2 C, I, C
Authors should make any corrections to the word-processor le and
submit a fully revised version electronically. Editors may need to mark
corrections on hard copy, and, if brief, these should be added legibly in
a prominent colour at the appropriate point in the text, so the typesetter
can add each emendation to the le eciently. If a correction consists of
more than one or two sentences, or contains typographically complex
text, it should be printed on a separate sheet of paper and also supplied
electronically, with each word-processor le clearly named and the
same convention used for the accompanying hard copy, e.g. ‘Insert A’.
At the appropriate point in the hard copy of the main text write ‘Insert
A attached’.
1.3.3 F C
e typesetter will normally have available typefaces in both upper case
(large capitals) and lower case, each in roman, italic, and bold versions;
in addition, the system should include a typographically separate small
capital font. is should not be confused with capital letters printed in a
smaller type size since small capital fonts have been separately designed.
ese alphabets may be seen thus:
LARGE CAPITALS lower case
ITALIC CAPITALS italic lower case
BOLD CAPITALS bold lower case
LARGE CAPITALS should be typed as such; text to be set in
should also be typed as such, by using the word processor’s
small capitals formatting eect.
For text to be set in italic type (see Chapter ), authors should use
the word processor’s italic form of a font, which can be automatically
converted. Do not type the copy in roman type and underline it, as was
the practice when using a typewriter.
e bold form of a font should not normally be used for emphasis,
since it is too obtrusive. However, limited use may be appropriate in
some contexts as an alternative to the use of italic, e.g. for highlighting
words in the course of lexical analysis.
Ensure that a legible size of font is used so that superior (superscript)
and inferior (subscript) gures and diacritical and punctuation marks
can be clearly seen.
1.3.4 H S
Do not type headings or subheadings in capitals and do not underline
or italicize them, since either method may conict with the style which
the editor wishes the printer to follow. Headings and subheadings should
not normally end with a full stop or colon.
Major subdivisions within the text, if required, should be marked
by increased spacing. e rst line of a new subdivision should not be
indented. A convenient system for designating numbered subdivisions
is to number all sections and subsections with arabic numerals and
express them in series, divided by full stops, as in this Style Guide. Avoid
excessive levels of subdivision.
1.3.5 D
For discussion of usage, see .. Word processors have the facility to
indicate the short dash or en rule (–), the long dash or em rule (—),
1.
and the extended dash or -em rule (——). If you cannot access these
characters, type -- without spaces for the en rule (but there is no need
to do this for number ranges), -- with a space on either side for the em
rule, and --- for the -em rule.
According to these principles, the examples of usage given in the
le-hand column will be typed as in the right-hand column:
the – war the - war
the north–south divide the north--south divide
Some people — an ever increasing
number — deplore this
Some people -- an ever increasing
number -- deplore this
Brontë, Charlotte, Shirley
—— Villette
Brontë, Charlotte, Shirley
--- Villette
1.3.6 R H
Shortened headings may be required at the heads of printed pages aer
the rst page of the article or chapter. A preferred abbreviated version
of the title could be provided by the author on submission of copy.
1.3.7 N P
Ensure that all pages (including notes or references) are numbered
consecutively in the top right-hand corner.
1.3.8 T C
e basic formatting of the text, particularly the division into pages and
lines, should be le to the typesetter. In particular, do not use any of
the ad hoc formatting devices available on your word processor, such
as manual page breaks and variations of page dimensions, to t text
neatly on whole pages. is may detract from the visual aspect of your
nal copy, but it will avoid any need for the typesetter to change the
format of your copy before it can be processed. Use hyphens only as
recommended in
.. e return key (or paragraph marker) should be
used only at the end of paragraphs and headings, or to divide the lines
of tables, lists, or verse quotations.
Double spaces should not be used in normal text, and should be
eliminated from your copy before submission. In particular, type only
a single space between the end of a sentence and the rst character of
the next, and following major punctuation marks such as colons and
semicolons.
Do not right-justify or centre any parts of the text, as this will
introduce additional spaces which are not easily distinguished from
typed spaces. Do not use coloured backgrounds to highlight text.
1.3.9 S C D, N-
L S
If your text contains characters that are not directly available from a
standard computer keyboard, you should consult the editor or publisher
as to the best way to insert them in your copy. e special character sets
provided by major word processors are acceptable to many publishers;
devices for creating and combining characters should be avoided. Some
publishers specify codes for non-standard characters. Where your text
contains a signicant number of special characters, it is advisable to list
them all separately, for submission along with the nal copy.
Alphabets such as Cyrillic and Greek and the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA) may cause conversion problems for typesetters, who can
suggest a specic method of producing the copy (e.g. through the use
of Unicode-based fonts). For transliteration of Cyrillic characters, see
... Additional problems arise with other alphabetic scripts (such as
Arabic and Hebrew) and non-alphabetic scripts (such as Chinese and
Japanese). In all such cases, consult the editor at an early stage.
e following publications contain much useful information on
copy preparation and typesetting for languages other than English,
both those using the Latin alphabet and others:
New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors: e Essential A–Z Guide
to the Written Word (Oxford: Oxford University Press, )
e Chicago Manual of Style, th edn (Chicago and London: University
of Chicago Press, )
1.3.10 N
Footnote or endnote reference numbers should be inserted following any
punctuation except a dash, and at the end of a sentence if possible:
[…] composed.
Many typesetting programs are able to convert the standard
footnoting and endnoting facilities of a word processor, but it is
1.
recommended that authors check the guidelines for authors provided
by the publication, or discuss the use of these facilities with the editor
or publisher, before preparing an article or book for submission. Where
these facilities are unavailable or should not be used, notes should be
supplied in a separate le, with reference numbers typed as superior
(superscript) gures in the appropriate place.
e notes will normally be set in type smaller than that used for the
text but should be provided by the author in full type size with double
spacing (whether generated from a word-processor noting facility or
supplied as a separate text le) and numbered consecutively throughout
an article or chapter, but not throughout a whole book or thesis.
1.3.11 I
e inclusion of any illustrative material should always be discussed
with the editor prior to submission. For all illustrations that are in
copyright, the author must obtain, from all interested rightsholders,
written permission to reproduce in all publication formats (print
or electronic), including conrmation of the credit to be printed
acknowledging permission to reproduce. Top copies of permission
documents should be supplied with the illustrations. e responsibility
for payment of costs for reproduction should also be discussed with the
editor at an early stage.
Increasingly, illustrations can be supplied electronically and for most
typesetters this will be the preferred format. e appropriate resolution,
le format, and means of submission should be discussed with the
editor. It is recommended that TIFF or EPS les should be supplied,
saved at a minimum input scanning resolution of dpi (dots-per-inch)
for colour, – dpi for halones, dpi for simple line, and
dpi for ne line images. JPEG images are usually not recommended for
printing purposes, unless les are available at print-quality resolutions.
All illustrations should be supplied as separate les, not embedded
within the text.
Where illustrations are not available in electronic format, a clear
original in black ink on white paper or board for line illustrations, and
glossy black-and-white photographs for halones, should be provided.
For all illustrations indicate clearly on the reverse the title of the book
or journal, the author’s name, and the gure or plate number. Be careful
to write very lightly in pencil on the reverse of an original or it may be
spoiled. Some reduction may improve denition, but excessive reduction
may cause detail, such as ne lines or close shading, to be lost. Normally
the original should not be more than four times larger, nor should it be
smaller, than the nal required size of the image. A general indication of
the preferred size of reproduction, e.g. ‘half page’, ‘text width’, along with
specic groupings, e.g. ‘gures and on same page’, should be given
in an accompanying note as a guideline for the typesetter. If part of the
illustration is to be omitted, indicate on an accompanying photocopy
the portion to be masked o. Where this is not possible, indicate lightly
on the reverse of the original or on an attached paper overlay.
e style for referencing an illustration within the text should be
ascertained from the editor or guidelines for authors but is generally
by insertion of the phrase ‘Figure […]’. A reference is necessary because
an illustration is unlikely to follow the relevant text immediately, for
technical reasons. Figures should be numbered in sequence in arabic
numerals throughout an article or chapter.
e term ‘plate’ is applicable only to pages of illustrations printed,
and numbered, separately from the text; it refers to the page, not to the
illustrations on it (so one plate may contain more than one illustration).
Plates should be numbered in sequence in roman numerals and a
reference given within the text (‘Plate […]’).
Authors who are not sure of the intended treatment of their
illustrations should consult the editor before numbering them.
Captions for illustrations should be supplied as a separate le.
Acknowledgement of permission to reproduce the illustration, where
appropriate, should be indicated below the caption.
1.3.12 T
Tables may not always convert satisfactorily from word-processed les.
ey should be prepared using the word processor’s standard table
routine if possible, but, if not, columns should be separated by standard
tabulation. ey should not be embedded within the text but should
be either placed at the end of the text or supplied as separate les. A
reference to the table should be included within the text at an appropriate
point (‘Table […]’), as, for technical reasons, it may not be possible for
the table to be printed immediately following the relevant text. Tables
should be numbered in sequence in arabic numerals throughout an
1.
article or chapter. Bear in mind that the pages of your published text
are likely to be narrower than your word-processed pages.
1.3.13 C-
Since they cannot be nalized until the text is typeset, cross-references
within an article or book should be typed as triple zeros:
See above [or below], p. , n. .
Internal cross-referencing, i.e. cross-references to pages within your
own document, should be avoided as far as possible; it is preferable
to cross-refer to chapters, sections, notes, etc. Where internal cross-
referencing to a page is unavoidable, cross-references should be carefully
checked and marked on the proofs.
1.4 AUTHORTYPESET FORMATS
1.4.1 G
Where economy or speed is an important concern, or for specialized
material requiring precise layout that could not easily be retypeset, an
author may be asked to prepare typeset pages in the nal form in which
they are to be published. is may apply to entire monographs, to items
in newsletters or collections, or to preprints of conference papers. e
author should be guided by the instructions of the volume or series
editor on issues of style, usage, and formatting, to ensure consistency
within the volume and between volumes. For MHRA volumes prepared
by this means, authors should follow this Style Guide.
1.4.2 D E S
Word-processing and desktop publishing (DTP) soware allows authors
to submit their content digitally as made-up pages. is may take the
form of les in the format of the program used, or PostScript or PDF
les, which are used by the printer to produce printing plates. As always,
it is essential to consult the editor about le formats and methods of
transferring les before beginning work, and authors should still have
regard to matters of style and layout.
1.5 ORDER OF PARTS OF A BOOK
Before submission to editor or publisher, the text of a book should be
arranged in the order requested by the publisher. Authors undertaking
the typesetting of a book should have regard to this order, and to which
pages (generally preliminaries) may be conventionally typeset in a series
with standing matter or an established format.
e typescript of a book should be arranged in the order requested
by the publisher. e following order is preferred for MHRA
publications:
Half-title (the full title, including any subtitle, of the book, and the title of
the series and the volume number in that series, if applicable; the name
of the author does not normally appear); the verso of this page is usually
le blank when the book is printed or may carry a frontispiece
Title page
Bibliographical details (name and address of the publisher and printer,
copyright statement, International Standard Book Number (ISBN),
Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, etc.); this page may be le blank by
the author and the details supplied by the editor and publisher
Dedication or epigraph (the verso is le blank)
Contents list
List of illustrations (gures, maps, plates, in that order)
Foreword (by someone other than the author)
Author’s preface
Acknowledgements (if not included in the author’s preface)
List of abbreviations and/or glossary if these are necessary to an
understanding of the text; otherwise they may be placed towards the
end of the book, before the bibliography
Introduction (unless this constitutes the rst chapter of the text)
Text
Appendix or appendices
Notes and references (for the whole text)
Bibliography
Index or indexes
Few books will include everything listed above; some items may be
requested at a late stage in production.
e copyright should be indicated thus: international copyright
symbol (©); name of holder of copyright; year of rst publication. e
printer’s name and usual place of business must appear on the rst or
last leaf of the publication and may conveniently be combined with
the publisher’s imprint. e preliminary pages (‘prelims’), comprising
all items before the main text, are usually numbered in lower-case
roman numerals; though these numbers are not printed on certain
1.
pages (half-title, title, etc.), they are counted in the sequence. Arabic
numbering usually begins on the rst page of the text. However, since
the page numbers cannot be added by the printer until the page proofs
are prepared, all the pages of the typescript should be numbered in one
(arabic) sequence throughout (see ..).
2.1 PREFERRED SPELLINGS
In the case of verbs ending in -ize or -ise and their derivatives, one or
other set of forms may be used throughout MHRA books. In the case
of collections of essays, the editor(s) will advise which forms are to be
used. e forms in -ize, -ization, etc. (e.g. civilize, civilization) are used
in MHRA journals. is is also the preferred spelling of many other
academic publishers.
Some words must have the -ise spelling, e.g.:
advertise comprise devise franchise supervise
advise compromise enterprise improvise surmise
apprise demise excise incise surprise
chastise despise exercise revise televise
e British spelling of analyse and its derivatives has s and not z.
e forms disk, program are used even in British spelling in
computing contexts; otherwise, use disc, programme.
In case of doubt, the form given in the New Oxford Dictionary for
Writers and Editors should in most cases be used (but for diacritics,
see .).
2.2 DIACRITICS
ere is great inconsistency between dictionaries (and sometimes within
the same dictionary) as to the use of accents and other diacritics in
words borrowed from other languages.
Two cases are, however, clear:
(a) When a word or, more oen, an expression is still felt to be foreign
(and an objective decision is not always possible), all diacritics should
be retained, e.g.:
aide-mémoire, ancien régime, à la mode, Aulärung, la belle époque,
bête noire, cause célèbre, déjà vu, éminence grise, Führer, lycée, maître
2
SPELLING AND USAGE
2.
d’hôtel, papier mâché, pièce de résistance, più, raison d’être, señor,
succès de scandale, tête-à-tête
Such words and expressions are oen italicized (see also .).
(b) Words ending in -é retain their accent:
blasé, café, cliché, communiqué, exposé, ancé (also ancée)
In such words, any other accents are also retained, e.g.:
émigré, pâté, protégé, résumé
We recommend that, except as provided for in (b) above, diacritics
should be dropped in the case of words that have passed into regular
English usage, e.g.:
chateau, cortege, creche, crepe, debacle, debris, decor, denouement,
detente, echelon, elite, fete, hotel, matinee, naive, precis, premiere,
regime, role, seance, soiree
For the use of accents on capitals, see ..
2.3 HYPHENS
Hyphens should be used only when they have a specic purpose. ey
occasionally occur within the body of a word, particularly with re-
followed by e (e.g. re-echo, re-enter), but they normally indicate that two
or more words are to be read as a single word with only one main stress.
e examples given below show forms that are attributive and have a
single main stress and are therefore hyphenated, while predicative and
other forms having two main stresses are not hyphenated:
a well-known fact the facts are well known
a tenth-century manuscript in the tenth century
Nevertheless, to avoid a proliferation of hyphens and where there
is no possibility of ambiguity, forms such as a late eighteenth-century
novelist, post-Second World War diculties, are to be preferred to a late-
eighteenth-century novelist, post-Second-World-War diculties.
In phrases such as pre- and post-war governments, pro- and anti-
abortion movements, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century literature,
where two or more parallel hyphenated terms are combined, the rst
hyphen is followed by a space.
Adverbs ending in -ly and other polysyllabic adverbs are not
hyphenated to a following adjective or participle:
a highly contentious argument
a recently published novel
a handsomely bound volume
a frequently occurring mistake
a hitherto unrecognized custom
ever increasing quantities
Collocations of certain monosyllabic adverbs (in particular ill but not
well — see above) and a participle oen have only one main stress and
are therefore hyphenated even when used predicatively:
He is very ill-tempered.
Such a course of action would be ill-advised.
ese prejudices are deep-seated.
Note that, unlike the words early, late, north, south, etc., the prex
mid- always requires a hyphen (except where it forms part of a single
word, as in midnight):
e boat sank in mid-Atlantic.
a mid-June midnight ight
a mid-sixteenth-century chair
until the mid-nineteenth century
e presence or absence of a hyphen is oen signicant:
two-year-old dogs two year-old dogs
a deep-blue lake a deep blue lake
a vice-chancellor the vice squad
to re-cover to recover
ere is considerable variation in the use of hyphens. Usage shis
over time and forms that were once entirely acceptable may now seem
odd or old-fashioned. Some words that used to be hyphenated have
now become so common that they are regarded as single unhyphenated
words:
battleeld, bookshelf, paperback, subcommittee, subtitle
In short, if a compound is in frequent use and is pronounced as a single
word it is usually acceptable to write it as one word without a hyphen.
e best advice is to use a good dictionary and to be consistent.
2.
2.4 QUOTATIONS
e spelling of quotations is always that of the book or edition referred
to. Note, however, that in quotations from early printed books the forms
of the letters i and j, u and v, the long s (ſ o r ſ ) the ampersand (&), the
Tironian sign (⁊), the tilde, superior (superscript) letters in contractions,
and other abbreviations are normalized to modern usage unless there
are good reasons to the contrary, as, for example, in full bibliographical
descriptions.
2.5 POSSESSIVES
2.5.1 G
e possessive of nouns and indenite pronouns is regularly formed by
the addition of s preceded by the apostrophe:
the court’s decision, the doctor’s fee, the witness’s testimony, Smith’s
elixir, no one’s fault, the children’s day out
e possessive forms of personal pronouns hers, its, theirs, yours do not
have an apostrophe.
In plural nouns ending in -s the possessive is represented by the
apostrophe alone:
the courts’ decisions, the doctors’ fees, the witnesses’ testimonies, MPs’
assistants
2.5.2 P N
e possessive of proper names ending in a pronounced -s or -z is
formed in the normal way by adding an apostrophe and s:
Alvarez’s criticism, Berlioz’s symphonies, Cervantes’s works, Dickens’s
characters, in Inigo Jones’s day, Keats’s poems, Dylan omas’s use of
language
French names ending in an unpronounced -s, -x, or -z also follow the
normal rule and take an apostrophe and s:
Rabelais’s comedy, Descartes’s works, Malraux’s style, Cherbuliez’s
novels
e possessive of names ending in -us also conforms to the normal
rule:
Claudius’s successor, Herodotus’s Histories, Jesus’s parables, an empire
greater than Darius’s
However, the possessive of Moses and of Greek names ending in -es
(particularly those having more than two syllables) is usually formed
by means of the apostrophe alone:
under Moses’ leadership, Demosthenes’ speeches, Sophocles’ plays,
Xerxes’ campaigns
2.6 PLURALS
Some nouns borrowed from foreign languages have only the regular
English plural, e.g.:
(Greek) metropolis, metropolises
(Latin) campus, campuses; census, censuses; album, albums; forum,
forums; museum, museums; premium, premiums
(Italian) canto, cantos; libretto, librettos; soprano, sopranos; sonata,
sonatas
Some nouns, especially ones adopted from Greek and Latin, have only
the foreign plural ending, e.g.:
(Greek) analysis, analyses; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises; diagnosis,
diagnoses; oasis, oases; thesis, theses (and similarly with hypothesis,
parenthesis, synthesis); criterion, criteria; phenomenon, phenomena
(Latin) alumnus, alumni; stimulus, stimuli; addendum, addenda; datum,
data; desideratum, desiderata; erratum, errata; codex, codices
(German) lied, lieder
Other borrowed nouns may have either the English or the foreign plural.
In general, the foreign plural is less common and more formal, or it
may have a more specialized sense, as in these words of Greek or Latin
origin:
formula (formulas in everyday usage, formulae in specialized contexts);
thesaurus (thesauruses, thesauri); medium (mediums in spiritualism,
media for (plural) means of communication); memorandum
(memorandums, memoranda); referendum (referendums, referenda);
ultimatum (ultimatums, ultimata); corpus (corpuses, corpora);
appendix (appendixes for parts of the body, appendixes or appendices
2.
for additional parts of a publication); index (indexes for alphabetical
lists of references, indices in mathematics)
Some adopted French words may retain the original plural -x, but -s is
also found. e following forms are recommended:
adieu, adieus; milieu, milieux; tableau, tableaux
See also . on the plurals of foreign currencies.
No apostrophe should be used before the plural ending of
abbreviations (where the -s follows any punctuation), names, numbers,
letters, and words not normally used as nouns, e.g.:
MPs, POWs, Ph.D.s
the Henrys, the two Germanys
the
s, the twenties, ones and twos
as and es, the three Rs
haves and have nots
3.1 PLACENAMES
3.1.1 G
In a historical context, relevant anglicized or obsolete names may be
appropriate (e.g. Bombay, Danzig, Rhodesia), but otherwise current
usage should be respected (e.g. Mumbai, Gdańsk, Zimbabwe).
3.1.2 T C
Where there is a current English form for foreign names of towns or cities
(e.g. Cologne, Dunkirk, Florence, Geneva, Lisbon, Majorca, Mexico City,
Moscow, Munich, Naples, Quebec, Salonika, Tur in, Venice, Vienna), it
should be used. Obsolete English forms (Francfort, Leipsic, Leghorn, etc.)
should be avoided. e forms Luxembourg, Lyon, Marseille, Reims, and
Strasbourg are now more widely used than Luxemburg, Lyons, Marseilles,
Rheims, and Strasburg or Strassburg and are therefore recommended.
e following are now the ocial spellings of certain Welsh names
(including in texts written in English) and should be used instead of the
anglicized forms found in earlier maps and in earlier books: Aberdy,
Aberystwyth, Betws-y-Coed, Caernarfon, Conwy (river and town),
Dolgellau, Ffestiniog, Llanelli, Ty wy n.
e use or non-use of hyphens in names such as Newcastle upon
Tyne, Stratford-upon-Avon should be checked in a good reference work.
French place-names are regularly hyphenated, e.g. Colombey-les-Deux-
Églises, Châlons-sur-Marne, Saint-Malo, except for an introductory
denite article, e.g. Le Havre, Les Baux-de-Provence.
Note the correct form of the name of Washington, DC (comma, no
stops).
For forms of reference to the place of publication of books, see ..
and ..
3
NAMES
3.
3.1.3 C
Distinguish between (a) Great Britain (i.e. England, Scotland, Wales),
(b) the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland),
(c) the British Isles (England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man,
the Channel Islands).
Note:
(a) that England should never be used for any of the above;
(b) that the term Britain in its strict sense is the equivalent of Great Britain
but is so extensively used as the equivalent of the United Kingdom that
it would be pedantic to object to its use in that sense;
(c) that the Irish form Éire should not be used in English as the name of
the Republic of Ireland;
(d) that the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are not parts of England,
of Great Britain, or of the United Kingdom.
e denite article is no longer used in the names of the countries
Lebanon, Sudan, and Ukraine (but the Gambia, the Netherlands).
3.2 ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS
Care needs to be taken to ensure that the names of academic institutions
are correctly given, e.g. Johns Hopkins University (not John), Magdalen
College (Oxford), Magdalene College (Cambridge). Universities and
colleges with similar names must be clearly distinguished, such as the
University of California and California State University, the University
of York (England) and York University (Toronto).
3.3 PERSONAL NAMES
3.3.1 C N
Care must be taken over the spelling of names in Mc, Mac, etc. (e.g.
McDonald, MacDonald, M’Donald, Macmillan, Mac Liammóir); adopt
the form used by the individual in question. All such forms, whatever
the spelling adopted, are alphabetized as if they began with Mac.
Likewise, distinguish between Irish names that retain their original
form (Ó Máille) and those that are anglicized (O’Donnell).
In Welsh names, ap and ab are neither capitalized nor hyphenated.
Names of historical gures are alphabetized under the rst name (e.g.
Dafydd ap Gwilym, Dafydd ab Owain), modern names under ap or ab
(e.g. ap Gwilym, ab Owen Edwards).
3.3.2 F N
Where generally accepted English forms of classical names exist (Horace,
Livy, Ptolemy, Virgil), they should be used.
Names of popes and saints should normally be given in their English
form (Gregory, Innocent, Paul, St Francis of Assisi, St John of the Cross.
In a philosophical context, the title of saint may be omitted (omas
Aquinas, Augustine of Hippo).
Names of foreign kings and queens should normally be given in
their English form where one exists (Charles V, Catherine the Great,
Ferdinand and Isabella, Francis I, Henry IV, Victor Emmanuel). ose
names for which no English form exists (Haakon, Sancho) or for which
the English form is quaint or archaic (Alphonse, Lewis for Alfonso, Louis)
should retain their foreign form. If in the course of a work it is necessary
to refer to some monarchs whose names have acceptable English forms
and some which do not, in the interests of consistency it is better to use
the foreign form for all:
the reigns of Fernando III and Alfonso X
Henri IV was succeeded by Louis XIII.
In case of ambiguity as to the correct spelling of names of French
authors, use as a guide the catalogue of the Bibliothèque nationale de
France (http://www.bnf.fr/). Surnames in van take a lower-case initial in
the Netherlands (van der Plas, van Toorn) but are generally capitalized
in Belgium (Van den Bremt, Van Ryssel).
With reference to the Prophet, use the form Muhammad and
not Mohammed or Mahomet. Likewise, Muslim not Moslem or
Mohammedan, Muhammadan, etc.
3.3.3 T S N
Various systems exist for the transliteration of Russian and other
languages using the Cyrillic alphabet. Contributors to journals, series,
etc. in the eld of Slavonic studies should ascertain which system is
preferred and conform to it strictly. e MHRA species that the Library
of Congress system without diacritics is to be used in all its publications
in the Slavonic eld, namely e Slavonic and East European Review, the
Slavonic article and review sections of e Modern Language Review, the
Slavonic sections of e Year’s Work in Modern Language Studies, and
3.
relevant volumes in the Publications of the MHRA, MHRA Texts and
Dissertations, and MHRA Bibliographies series. us for instance:
Dostoevskii, Chaikovskii, Tolstoi, Evtushenko
In other contexts, Russian and other Slavonic names should, wherever
possible, be given in the form recommended by the New Oxford
Dictionary for Writers and Editors, even when this conicts with the
Library of Congress system:
Dostoevsky, Tchaikovsky, Tolstoy, Yevtushenko
Note in particular that, except in the one case of Tchaikovsky, Ch- not
Tch- should be used (e.g. Chekhov) and that the prime (′) should not
be used:
Gogol, Gorky, Ilya (compare Library of Congress: Gogol′, Gor′kii, Il′ia).
4
ABBREVIATIONS
4.1 GENERAL
Since abbreviations increase the possibility of confusion and
misunderstanding, they should be used with caution. When writing for
a particular publication, use only those abbreviations which are likely to
be familiar to its readers. Never begin a sentence with an abbreviation,
and avoid abbreviations as far as possible in passages of continuous
prose. For example:
e author’s comments on page , line , seem particularly apt.
Here the words ‘page’ and ‘line’, normally abbreviated in references,
are given in full to prevent a disruptive eect in reading. Extensively
used abbreviations, other than common ones such as ‘p.’ and ‘l.’, should
be clearly listed at the beginning of a book or in an early note to an
article.
4.2 TITLES
In the text of your book or article, avoid inelegant or confusing
abbreviations of the titles of literary works. It is clearly necessary to
avoid frequent repetition of a title, especially a long one, and discreet
abbreviation will from time to time be needed. is should normally take
the form of a short title, not initials: All’s Well, not AW EW. Repetition
can oen be avoided in other ways: e.g. ‘the play’, when it is obvious
which play is meant. Conversely, in notes, and in parenthetical textual
references in the main body of a book or article, abbreviations are more
oen appropriate. Note, however, that abbreviated titles are standard in
some cases, e.g. OED for Oxford English Dictionary, or PMC for Poema
de mio Cid. See . on the avoidance of repeated note references to the
same work.
4.
4.3 IN FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES
If possible, do not begin a note with an abbreviation which is normally
printed in lower-case characters (‘e.g.’, ‘i.e.’, ‘pp.’). If this cannot be
avoided, note that ‘c.’, ‘e.g.’, ‘i.e.’, ‘l.’, ‘ll.’, ‘p.’, ‘pp.’, remain entirely in
lower case:
pp. –. not
Pp. –.
Other abbreviations, such as ‘Cf.’ or ‘Ibid.’, take an initial capital at the
start of a note.
4.4 USE OF FULL STOP
A contracted form of a word that ends with the same letter as the full
form, including plural -s, is not followed by a full stop:
Dr, Jr, Mme, Mr, Mrs, St, vols
but note the exception ‘no.’ from Italian ‘numero’, plural ‘nos.’. Other
abbreviations take a full stop and are followed by a space:
M. Dupont (Monsieur), Prof. J. Jones, l. , ll. –, p. , pp. –,
vol. xix
In lower-case abbreviations for expressions consisting of more than one
word, there is a full stop aer each initial:
a.m. (ante meridiem), e.g. (exempli gratia), i.e. (id est), n.p. (no place [of
publication]), n.d. (no date [of publication])
Full stops are omitted in capitalized abbreviations or acronyms for:
(a) standard works of reference (italicized), journals (italicized), or series
(not italicized):
DNB, OED, ABELL, MLR, PMLA, TLS, BAR, PMHRS, PRF, TBL
(b) countries, institutions, societies, and organizations (none of them
italicized):
UK, USA, BL, BM, UNAM, CNRS, ANTS, MHRA, MLA, UNESCO
In bibliographical references, use MS, MSS (‘manuscript(s)’). In normal
prose text the word should be written out in full.
4.5 AMERICAN STATES
e two-letter postal abbreviations for American states, e.g.:
CA (California), IL (Illinois), MA (Massachusetts), NY (New York)
have largely replaced the ocial abbreviations, though a few of these,
in particular ‘Calif.’ and ‘Mass.’, are still widely used. e postal
abbreviations, which have no full stop, should be used whenever it is
necessary to include the name of the state in bibliographical references
(.., list of items, no. ). ese abbreviations are given in the
New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.
5
PUNCTUATION
5.1 COMMAS
Commas are used singly or in pairs to indicate signicant groupings or
separations of words in the sentence. Particular note should be taken
of the following usages:
(a) Commas should be used to delimit parenthetical or interpolated
phrases, and nouns in apposition:
My father, not to mention the rest of my family, felt the loss deeply.
is book, written in , would change the world.
Dante, the Florentine poet, was born in .
Note that a noun preceded by a dening phrase is not in apposition and
should not be enclosed in commas:
e Florentine poet Dante was born in .
(b) Commas are used to delimit non-restrictive relative clauses, which
do not dene what precedes:
ose with a university degree, who have experience of higher education,
see qualications in a dierent light.
e family had two cats, which slept indoors, and a dog.
No commas are used in the corresponding restrictive relative clauses:
ose with a university degree who have studied medicine see research
in a dierent light.
e family had two cats which slept indoors and one which went out at
night.
(c) In an enumeration of three or more items, the practice in MHRA
journals is to insert commas aer all but the last item, to give equal
weight to each enumerated element:
e University has departments of French, German, Spanish, and
Portuguese within its Faculty of Arts.
e conjunctions and and or without a preceding comma are understood
as linking the parts of a single enumerated element:
e University has departments of French, German, Spanish and
Portuguese, Czech and Polish, and Dutch.
Comedians such as Laurel and Hardy, Abbott and Costello, or Charlie
Chaplin.
By the same principle a comma should be used before a phrase such as
‘and so on’ or ‘etc.’ at the end of an enumeration.
e comma aer the penultimate item may be omitted in books
published by the MHRA, as long as the sense is clear. Usage should
be consistent, although titles and subtitles may constitute exceptions
because of considerations of graphic design and/or sense.
(d) Commas should not be used if their omission leaves the meaning
of the sentence unaected. e mere fact that a sentence has a complex
subject does not justify the use of a comma between the subject and
verb. Accordingly a sentence such as
e team of editors responsible for the latest edition of the handbook has
made a signicant number of changes.
requires no comma following ‘handbook’.
5.2 DASHES
Printers use both a short and a long dash.
e short dash (‘en rule’) is used to indicate a span or a dierentiation
and may be considered as a substitute for ‘and’ or ‘to’ (but see .):
the England–France match; the – war; January– February;
pp. –
However, compound adjectives take a hyphen and not a dash; thus
‘Sino-Soviet relations’ but ‘the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact’.
Long dashes (‘em rules’), oen with a space on either side, are
normally found in pairs to enclose parenthetical statements, or singly
to denote a break in the sentence:
Some people — an ever increasing number — deplore this.
Family and fortune, health and happiness — all were gone.
5.
Long dashes should be used sparingly; commas, colons, or parentheses
are oen more appropriate. Other punctuation marks should not
normally be used before or aer a dash.
A very long dash (——), known as a -em dash, is used to indicate
‘ditto’ in bibliographies and similar lists:
Marlowe, Christopher, Edward II
—— e Jew of Malta
For means of representing the dierent dashes in typescript, see
...
5.3 PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
If you are using the term ‘brackets’ it is important, where relevant,
to specify ‘square brackets’, ‘round brackets’ (or ‘parentheses’), ‘angle
brackets’, i.e.ᇳ ᇴ, or ‘braces’, i.e. { }.
Parentheses, i.e. round brackets, are used for parenthetical statements
and references within a text. When a passage within parentheses falls
at the end of a sentence of which it is only a part, the nal full stop is
placed outside the closing parenthesis:
is was well reviewed at the time (for instance in TLS, July ,
p. ).
When a complete sentence is within parentheses, the nal full stop
should be inside the closing parenthesis. Parentheses may be used within
parentheses:
(His presidential address () made this point clearly.)
Square brackets should be used for the enclosure of phrases or words
which have been added to the original text or for editorial and similar
comments:
He adds that ‘the lady [Mrs Jervis] had suered great misfortunes’.
I do not think they should have [two words illegible].
He swore to tell the truth, the old [sic] truth, and nothing but the truth.
For the use of square brackets around ellipses, see .. For the use of
square brackets in references to the publication of books, see ...
In some MHRA series and journals, the practice is to use square
brackets or parentheses around translations that follow, or are included
in, quotations from an original text.
5.4 PUNCTUATION IN HEADINGS
Headings and subheadings should not normally end with a full stop or
colon. Full stops should also be omitted aer items in lists which are in
tabular form (except, of course, when used to mark abbreviations).
5.5 PUNCTUATION WITH ITALICS
ere are italic forms of most marks of punctuation. e type style
(roman or italics) of the main part of any sentence will govern the
style of the punctuation marks within or concluding it. If the main
part of a sentence is in roman but an italic word within it immediately
precedes a mark of punctuation, that mark will normally be in roman.
However, if the punctuation mark occurs within a phrase or title which
is entirely in italics, or if the punctuation mark belongs to the phrase
in italics rather than to the sentence as a whole, the punctuation mark
will be in italics:
Where is a storm more brilliantly portrayed than in Conrad’s
Typhoon?
In Edmund Ironside; or, War Hath Made All Friends, a play that survives
in manuscript, we see this technique in operation.
Kingsley followed this with Westward Ho!, perhaps his best-known
novel.
Who wrote Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf??
Do not follow the practice of substituting roman for italics in titles
within italicized titles (e.g. Understanding Les Fleurs du mal: Critical
Readings); in such cases, quotation marks should be used even if they
do not gure in the original, e.g. Understanding ‘Les Fleurs du mal’:
Critical Readings.
5.6 QUOTATION MARKS
See Chapter . For the use of quotation marks with the titles of poems,
essays, etc., see ..
5.7 ELLIPSES AND SQUARE BRACKETS
In quotations, points indicating an ellipsis (i.e. the omission of a portion
of the text) should be enclosed within square brackets:
5.
Her enquiries […] were not very favourably answered.
is practice makes it possible to distinguish between points indicating
an ellipsis and points that occur in the original, as in the following
quotation from Samuel Beckett:
Will you never have done … revolving it all?
and in this one from Tom Stoppard:
Well, he’s completely mad, of course. ey all are….
e original punctuation is retained when it is possible to do so:
When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another
[…], a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
Outside the hut I stood bemused. […] It was still morning and the smoke
from the cookhouse rose straight to the leaden sky.
When the beginning of a sentence is omitted, the rst word following
the ellipsis can be capitalized even if it does not have a capital in the
original:
For the rest of the evening, von Igelfeld considered his response. […] He
could just ignore the article altogether.
(In the original, the passage abbreviated ends ‘And nally, he could just
ignore the article altogether’.)
One may also indicate a change of case in square brackets:
Mrs Bennet felt that ‘[t]his was invitation enough’.
‘[A] young man of large fortune’ had taken Nethereld.
See too . on omissions within quotations.
6
CAPITALS
6.1 GENERAL
Initial capitals should be used with restraint. In particular, adjectives
deriving from nouns taking initial capitals are in many cases not
capitalized (but see .):
Alps, alpine; Bible, biblical; Satan, satanic (but Satanic with reference to
Satan himself)
Capitals must, however, be used for the initial letters of sentences and
for the names of places, persons, nationalities, the days of the week, and
months (but not for the seasons of the year). ey are also to be used
for the titles of laws, plans, wars, treaties, legal cases, and for specic
institutions and other organizations (the Modern Humanities Research
Association, the Poetry Book Club). Capitals are used also for unique
events and periods (the Flood, the Iron Age, the Peasants’ Revolt, the
Reformation, the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, World War II,
the Last Judgement) and for parts of books when referred to specically
(Chapter , Appendix A, Figure , Part ). Names of the points of the
compass are capitalized only when abbreviated (N.) or when they indicate
a specic area (the North [of England], South America) or a political
concept (the West). e corresponding adjectives are capitalized when
they are part of an ocial name (Northern Ireland) or when they refer
to political concepts rather than merely to geographical areas (Western
Europe) but not otherwise (northern England). ‘Middle’ is capitalized
in such xed expressions as Middle East(ern), Middle Ages, Middle
English.
Dictionaries are oen inconsistent in their use or non-use of capitals
for adjectives, verbs, and nouns deriving from names of peoples or
languages. We recommend that capitals be used in such cases:
Francophile, Gallicism, Italianist, Latinate
6.
Note, however, that ‘anglicize’, ‘anglophone’, ‘francophone’,
‘romanization’, etc., are not capitalized, nor are ‘arabic numerals’ and
‘roman type’ (but ‘the Arabic language’, ‘the Roman alphabet’).
6.2 TITLES AND DIGNITIES
Capitals are used for titles and dignities when these appear in full
or immediately preceding a personal name, or when they are used
specically, but not otherwise:
e Archbishop of Canterbury and several other bishops were present, but
Bishop Wilberforce was not.
When, aer a rst full reference, or with such reference understood,
a title is used incompletely but still with specic application to an
individual, the capital is retained:
e Archbishop spoke rst.
A word or phrase used as a substitute for, or an extension of, a personal
name also takes initial capitals:
the Iron Duke, Alfred the Great, the Dark Lady of the Sonnets
6.3 MOVEMENTS AND PERIODS
Capitals must be used for nouns and adjectives denoting cultural,
philosophical, literary, critical, and artistic movements and periods
when these are derived from proper nouns:
Cartesian, Chomskyan, Christian, Erastian, Freudian, Platonism
ey should also be used for literary and other movements when the
use of a lower-case initial might cause confusion with the same word
in a more general sense:
a poet of the Romantic school
a novel with a straightforwardly romantic plot
is covers the use of capitals when terms such as Conservative,
Democrat(ic), Independent, Liberal, National(ist), Republican, Social(ist)
refer to specic political parties or movements, e.g. the Independent
Labour Party, the Social and Liberal Democrats, but not otherwise, e.g.
‘a man of conservative (or liberal) views’.
For movements and periods with the prex ‘neo’ and other
compounds, see ..
6.4 TITLES OF BOOKS AND OTHER WRITINGS
In most modern European languages except English and French, and
in Latin and transliterated Slavonic languages, capitalization in the
titles of books, series, articles, essays, poems, etc. follows the rules of
capitalization in normal prose. at is, the rst word and all proper
nouns (in German all nouns) take an initial capital, and all other words
take a lower-case initial:
La vida es sueño; El alcalde de Zalamea; Il seme sotto la neve; De senectute;
Autorenlexikon der deutschen Gegenwartsliteratur; Obras clássicas da
literatura portuguesa
In English titles the initial letters of the rst word and of all nouns,
pronouns (except the relative ‘that’), adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and
subordinating conjunctions are capitalized, but those of articles,
possessive determiners (‘my’, etc.), prepositions, and the co-ordinating
conjunctions ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, and ‘nor’ are not:
(books) Put Out More Flags; How Far Can You Go?; e Man Who Was
ursday; All’s Well that Ends Well; Pride and Prejudice; A Voyage towards
the South Pole; (series) A Social History of the Welsh Language; (poems)
e Faerie Queene; ‘e Passionate Shepherd to his Love’
e rst word of a subtitle following a colon is capitalized:
Strange Music: e Metre of the English Heroic Line
e Wild Card of Reading: On Paul de Man
but or, introducing an alternative title aer a semi-colon, is not:
All for Love; or, e World Well Lost
English works with foreign titles are normally capitalized according to
the English convention rather than that of the language of the title:
Religio Medici; ‘Portrait d’une Femme’; ‘La Figlia che Piange’
In French titles it is normally only the initial letters of the rst word
and of proper nouns that are capitalized. But if the rst word is a denite
article, the following noun and any preceding adjectives also take an
initial capital:
6.
Le Médecin malgré lui; Les Grands Cimetières sous la lune; Un début dans
la vie; Une ténébreuse aaire; Du latin aux langues romanes; Nouveau
cours de grammaire; Histoire de la littérature française; A la recherche
du temps perdu
However, for reasons of symmetry, capitals are sometimes used
elsewhere:
‘Le Corbeau et le Renard’; Le Rouge et le Noir
and titles consisting of a complete sentence do not take additional
capitals:
Les dieux ont soif; La guerre de Troie n’aura pas lieu
Capitalization in the titles of newspapers and journals is inconsistent.
In particular, in Romance languages, initials of some or all nouns and
adjectives are sometimes capitalized, e.g. Le Bien Public, Il Corriere
della Sera, Dernières Nouvelles d’Alsace, El País, La Repubblica, Revue
de Linguistique Romane. e safest procedure is to adopt the preferred
style of each publication.
6.5 COMPOUNDS
Capitals should be retained aer the prex in hyphenated compound
forms such as:
anti-Semitism, neo-Aristotelian, non-Christian, post-Darwinian, post-
Impressionism, pre-Columbian
Both parts of the compound are capitalized in ‘Pre-Raphaelite’.
e following unhyphenated forms, uncapitalized or capitalized as
shown, are preferred:
neoclassical, neocolonial, neorealism, neoscholastic
Neoplatonism, Nonconformism, Presocratic
Archaeologists and historians, when referring to prehistoric eras,
usually write them as one word, capitalized when a noun but not when
an adjective:
before the Neolithic, neolithic sites
In titles and headings, all parts of the compound are normally
capitalized:
Anglo-Jewish Studies, Non-Christian Communities, Seventeenth-Century
Music, Post-Classical Literature
However, only the prex is capitalized if both parts are essentially one
word in hyphenated compounds formed with re-:
Democracy Re-established
6.6 ACCENTED CAPITALS
Accents should be retained on capitals in languages other than English,
e.g.:
le Moyen Âge, Éire, el Éufrates, Ólafsson
However, the French preposition à may drop the accent when capitalized
(A bientôt! ‘See you soon!’). Accents may also be omitted when using
single letters as abbreviations, as in P. E. for Paul Éluard.
6.7 SMALL CAPITALS
Small capitals are specially designed capitals, the height and visual
weight of which approximate to those of lower-case letters. ey are
normally used for roman volume numbers, postal codes (but not
abbreviations for US states), professional and academic qualications,
‘’, ‘’, ‘’, ‘’, and ‘’. ey also provide an alternative to italic
and bold type in the typographic treatment of subheadings. For further
guidance on roman numerals, see ..
For the presentation of small capitals when preparing copy,
see ...
7
ITALICS
7.1 GENERAL
Avoid the use of italics for rhetorical emphasis. Any word or phrase
individually discussed should, however, be in italics, and any
interpretation of it in single quotation marks:
He glosses pale as ‘fenced land, park’.
It may also be desirable to use italics to distinguish one word or phrase
from another, as, for example, in ‘ April not
rd
April’.
7.2 FOREIGN WORDS AND QUOTATIONS
Single words or short phrases in foreign languages (e.g. n de siècle) not
used as direct quotations should be in italics. Direct, acknowledged, or
more substantial quotations should be in roman type. For the setting
of quotations, see Chapter .
Foreign words and phrases which have passed into regular English
usage should not be italicized, though the decision between italic and
roman type may sometimes be a ne one. In doubtful instances it is
usually best to use roman. e following are examples of words which
are no longer italicized:
ad hoc dilettante par excellence
avant-garde ennui résumé
debris leitmotif salon
denouement milieu vice versa
See also ., ., and the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and
Editors.
Certain Latin words and abbreviations which are in common English
usage are also no longer italicized. For example:
cf., e.g., et al., etc., ibid., i.e., passim, viz.
Exceptions are made of the Latin sic, frequently used within quotations
(see .) and therefore conveniently dierentiated by the use of italic,
and of circa (abbreviated as c., see .). See also . on the use of such
abbreviations.
7. 3 TITLES OF BOOKS AND OTHER WRITINGS
Italics are used for the titles of all works individually published under
their own titles: books, journals, plays, longer poems, pamphlets, and
any other entire published works. However, titles such as ‘the Bible’, ‘the
Koran’, and ‘the Talmud’ are printed in roman, as are titles of books
of the Bible (see ..). Titles of series are not italicized, e.g. ‘eory
and History of Literature’. e titles of chapters in books or of articles
in books or journals should be in roman type enclosed within single
quotation marks (see .. and ..). e titles of poems, short stories,
or essays which form part of a larger volume or other whole, or the rst
lines of poems used as titles, should also be given in roman type in
single quotation marks:
éophile Gautier’s ‘L’Art’; Keats’s ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’; Shelley’s ‘Music,
When So Voices Die’; Joyce’s ‘e Dead’; Bacon’s ‘Of Superstition’
e titles of collections of manuscripts should be given in roman type
without quotation marks (see ..). e titles of unpublished theses
should be given in roman type in single quotation marks (see ..).
As recommended in ., titles of other works which appear within
an italicized title should be printed in italics and enclosed within single
quotation marks:
An Approach to ‘Hamlet’
In the citation of legal cases the names of the contending parties are
given in italics, but the intervening ‘v.’ (for ‘versus’) is in roman:
Bardell v. Pickwick
7. 4 TITLES OF FILMS, MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS,
AND WORKS OF ART
Titles of lms, substantial musical compositions, and works of art are
italicized:
7.
e Great Dictator; Il trovatore; Elijah; Swan Lake; Beethoven’s Eroica
Symphony; Tapiola; Die schöne Müllerin; Goyescas; e Haywain; e
Laughing Cavalier; Epstein’s Christ in Majesty
Descriptive or numerical titles such as the following, however, take
neither italics (except in a reference to a publication or recording: see
..) nor quotation marks:
Beethoven’s ird Symphony; Bach’s Mass in B minor; Mendelssohn’s
Andante and Scherzo; Piano Concerto no. in B at minor
Titles of songs and other short individual pieces (like those of poems;
see .) are given in roman and within single quotation marks:
‘Who is Sylvia?’; ‘La Marseillaise’; ‘Mercury, the Winged Messenger’ from
Holst’s e Planets
7. 5 TITLES OF EXHIBITIONS
Titles of exhibitions should be given in roman type and in single
quotation marks, capitalized according to the rules for titles given
above. See also .. (xvi) below for an example of a printed exhibition
catalogue.
8
DATES, NUMBERS, CURRENCY,
AND WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
8.1 DATES
Dates should be given in the form ‘ April ’. e name of the month
should always appear in full between the day (‘’ not ‘
rd
’) and the year.
No internal punctuation should be used except when a day of the week
is mentioned, e.g. ‘Friday, October ’. If it is necessary to refer to a
date in both Old and New Styles, the form ‘/ July ’ should be used.
For dates dependent upon the time of beginning the new year, the form
‘ January /’ should be used. When referring to a period of time,
use the form ‘from
to ’ (not ‘from –’), ‘from January to
March ’ (not ‘from January–March ’). In citations of the era,
‘’, ‘’, ‘’, and ‘’ follow the year and ‘’ precedes it, and small
capitals without full stops are used:
, , , ,
With reference to centuries, all of these, including ‘’, follow:
in the third century
In references to decades, an s without an apostrophe should be used:
the s (not the ’s), the s
In references to centuries the ordinal should be spelled out:
the sixteenth century (not the th century)
sixteenth-century drama
In giving approximate dates circa should be abbreviated as c. followed
by a space:
c. , c.
8. , , ,
8.2 NUMBERS
Numbers up to and including one hundred, including ordinals, should
be written in words when the context is not statistical. Figures should
be used for volume, part, chapter, and page numbers; but note:
e second chapter is longer than the rst.
Figures are also used for years, including those below one hundred (see
.). However, numbers at the beginning of sentences and approximate
numbers should be expressed in words, as should ‘hundred’, ‘thousand’,
‘million’, ‘billion’, etc., if they appear as whole numbers:
Two hundred and forty-seven pages were written.
e re destroyed about ve thousand books.
She lived and wrote a thousand years ago.
Words should be preferred to gures where inelegance would otherwise
result:
He asked for ninety soldiers and received nine hundred and ninety.
In expressing inclusive numbers falling within the same hundred, the
last two gures should be given, including any zero in the penultimate
position:
–, –, –, –, –
Where four-digit numbers do not fall within the same hundred, give
both gures in full:
–
Dates of lifespans should be given in full, e.g. –. Datespans before
the Christian era should be stated in full since the shorter form could
be misleading:
e First Punic War (– ) (not – )
Numbers up to are written without a comma, e.g. ; those from
, upwards take a comma, e.g. ,; those with seven or more
digits take two or more commas, separating groups of three digits
counting from the right, e.g.
,,,. However, where digits
align in columns, in copy such as tables or accounts, commas must be
consistently included or omitted in all numbers above .
8.3 ROMAN NUMERALS
e use of roman numerals should be conned to a few specic
purposes:
(a) large capitals for the ordinals of monarchs, popes, etc. (Edward VII), and
for major subdivisions within a text;
(b) small capitals for volume numbers of books (journals and series take arabic
numerals), also for the acts of plays, for ‘books’ or other major subdivisions of
long poems, novels, etc. (see ..), and for certain documents.
(c) small capitals for centuries in some languages other than English (‘
e
siècle’, ‘siglo ’); however, in Cyrillic script large capitals are used;
(d) lower case for the preliminary pages of a book or journal (even if the original
uses capitals), where these are numbered separately, and for minor subdivisions
within a text; inclusive numbers are written out in full, e.g. ‘xxiv–xxviii’ not
‘xxiv–viii’.
8.4 CURRENCY
Words should be used to express simple sums of money occurring in
normal prose:
e manuscript was sold for eight shillings in .
e reprint costs twenty-ve pounds or forty euros.
e fee was three hundred francs.
Names of foreign currencies, including the pre- European curren-
cies, should be given in their English form where one is in common use,
e.g. ‘[Swedish] crown’, ‘mark’ or ‘deutschmark’ (not ‘deutsche Mark’).
Note, too, the use of English plurals such as ‘drachmas’, ‘pfennigs’ (but
‘[Italian] lire’).
Sums of money which are awkward to express in words, or sums
occurring in statistical tables, etc., may be written in gures. British
currency before should be shown in the following form:
e manuscript was sold for s. d. in .
UK decimal currency should be expressed in pounds and pence
separated by a full stop on the line, not by a comma:
. (not , or .p)
8. , , ,
Sums below one pound should be shown thus (without a full stop aer
‘p’):
p, p
e same conventions apply to sums expressed in euros, dollars, or
yen:
, , ., c,
Where it is necessary to specify that reference is to the American,
Canadian, or some other dollar, an appropriate abbreviation precedes
the symbol without a full stop or a space:
US, C (or Can), A (or Aus), NZ
In most cases, abbreviations for (Swiss) francs, Scandinavian crowns,
or pre- European currencies follow the gure, from which they are
separated by a space, and are not followed by a full stop, e.g. ‘ F’, ‘
Kr’ (BF, FF, SwF, DKr, NKr, SKr where it is necessary to specify Belgian,
French, Swiss, Danish, Norwegian, or Swedish currency). However,
the abbreviation ‘DM’ for the German mark precedes the gure and is
separated from it by a space, e.g. ‘DM ’.
e names of other currencies are best written out in full:
escudos, pesetas, roubles
8.5 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
In non-statistical contexts express weights and measures in words:
He bought a phial of laudanum and an ounce of arsenic at a pharmacy
two miles from Cheapside.
In statistical works or in subjects where frequent reference is made
to them, weights and measures may be expressed in gures with
appropriate abbreviations:
e priory is situated km from the village of Emshall.
e same mm capitals were used by three Madrid printers at dierent
times.
Note that most such abbreviations do not take a full stop or plural s:
kg, kg, mm, cm, m, l (litres), , lb, oz
but, to avoid ambiguity, use ‘in.’ for ‘inch(es)’.
9
QUOTATIONS AND
QUOTATION MARKS
9.1 GENERAL
Quotation marks should normally be reserved for indicating direct
quotations, denitions of words, or for otherwise highlighting a word
or phrase. Avoid the practice of using quotation marks as an oblique
excuse for a loose, slang, or imprecise (and possibly inaccurate) word
or phrase.
In quoted passages in English follow the original for spelling,
capitalization, italics, and punctuation (but see ., ., ., ., and
.).
Prose quotations of no more than forty words in a single paragraph
or verse quotations of no more than two lines are considered short
quotations, and are to be treated as in . below. All other quotations
should be treated as long quotations, as in . below. If, however, several
short quotations come close together and are compared or contrasted
or otherwise set out as examples, it may be appropriate to treat them
together as a long quotation.
9.2 IN LANGUAGES OTHER THAN ENGLISH
Quotations in languages other than English are usually treated in the
same way as those in English (see .). Unless there are special reasons
to the contrary, the forms of quotation marks in foreign languages
(« » „ “ etc.) should be normalized to English usage. In long quotations, a
long (em) dash may be used to introduce direct speech in languages such
as French and Russian. Spacing before and aer punctuation should
respect English-language norms.
9.3 SHORT QUOTATIONS
Short quotations should be enclosed in single quotation marks and run
on with the main text. If a verse quotation includes a line division, this
should be marked with a spaced upright stroke ( | ).
9.
Balzac’s famous observation, ‘Je suis en train de devenir un génie’, has
generated much sceptical comment.
‘I had seen birth and death | But had thought they were dierent’, muses
Eliot’s Wise Man.
For a quotation within a quotation, double quotation marks should be
used:
Mrs Grose replies that ‘Master Miles only said “We must do nothing but
what she likes!”’.
If a short quotation is used at the end of a sentence, the nal full stop
should be outside the closing quotation mark:
Do not be afraid of what Stevenson calls ‘a little judicious levity’.
is rule applies even when a quotation ends with a full stop in the
original, and when a quotation forms a complete sentence in the
original but, as quoted, is integrated within a sentence of introduction
or comment without intervening punctuation:
We learn at once that ‘Miss Brooke had that kind of beauty which seems
to be thrown into relief by poor dress’.
For quotations which are either interrogatory or exclamatory,
punctuation marks should appear both before and aer the closing
quotation mark:
e pause is followed by Richard’s demanding ‘will no man say
“A me n”? ’.
Why does Shakespeare give Malcolm the banal question ‘Oh, by
whom?’?
e nal full stop should precede the closing quotation mark only when
the quotation forms a complete sentence and is separated from the
preceding passage by a punctuation mark. Such a quotation may be
interrupted:
Wilde said, ‘He found in stones the sermons he had already hidden
there.’
Soames added: ‘Well, I hope you both enjoy yourselves.’
Hardy’s Satires of Circumstance was not well received. ‘e gloom’, wrote
Lytton Strachey in his review of it, ‘is not even relieved by a little elegance
of diction.’
In this last example, the comma aer ‘gloom’ follows the quotation mark
as there is no comma in the original. Contrast:
‘It is a far, far better thing that I do,’ Carton asserts, ‘than I have ever
done.’
Here the original has a comma aer ‘I do’. But when the quotation
ends in a question mark or an exclamation mark, it is not followed by
a comma:
‘What think you of books?’ said he.
When a short quotation is followed by a reference in parentheses, the
nal punctuation should follow the closing parenthesis:
He assumes the eect to be ‘quite deliberate’ (p. ).
ere is no reason to doubt the eect of this ‘secret humiliation’ (Book
, Chapter ).
9.4 LONG QUOTATIONS
Long quotations should be broken o by an increased space from
the preceding and following lines of typescript. A long quotation
should never be used in the middle of a sentence of the main text: it is
unreasonable to expect the reader to carry the sense of a sentence across
a quotation several lines in length.
Long quotations should not be enclosed within quotation marks. A
quotation occurring within such a long quotation should be in single
quotation marks; if a further quotation occurs within that, double
quotation marks should be used. Foreign forms of quotation marks
(see .) should not be preserved unless there are special reasons for
doing so.
Prose quotations should not be indented, and the rst line should
be indented only if the quotation consists of more than one paragraph
and the rst line starts a paragraph in the original. Verse quotations
should follow the lineation and indentation of the original. ese longer
quotations should be double spaced. When printed, a long quotation
may be distinguished from the main text by setting it in a smaller size,
indenting it, or a combination of the two.
Long quotations should normally end with a full stop; even though
the original may use other punctuation, there is no need (except for a
9.
question mark or exclamation mark) to preserve this at the end of a
quotation.
Avoid interpolations indicating source that introduce square brackets
into the opening lines of long quotations, e.g.:
is play [writes Dr Johnson, referring to Cymbeline] has many just
sentiments, some natural dialogues, and some pleasing scenes, but they
are obtained at the expense of much incongruity.
e need for any such formulation can be eliminated by some such
rephrasing as the following:
Referring to Cymbeline, Dr Johnson writes:
is play has many just sentiments, some natural dialogues, and some
pleasing scenes.
A reference in parentheses aer a long quotation should always be
placed outside the closing full stop, and without a full stop of its own
(see the rst example in .).
9.5 QUOTATIONS FROM PLAYS
Where a quotation from a play is longer than about forty words, or two
lines of verse, it should be treated as a long quotation (see .). While the
spelling and punctuation within the text should be preserved, general
rules may be applied to the treatment of speakers’ names and stage
directions.
Where a single quotation contains both prose and blank verse,
special care should be taken to indicate the point at which one ends
and the other begins. Where a line of text is indented in the original, it
should be typed as near as possible to its original position. If a displayed
verse quotation opens with a part-line, type it so that it begins at the
right place; see below and . for examples.
In MHRA publications, prose quotations are set full out with
the speakers’ names in small capitals, without nal punctuation but
followed by an em space. Second and subsequent lines of a speech are
indented. Stage directions within a line of text are set in italic type
within roman parentheses. If a stage direction immediately follows a
speaker’s name, the space preceding the text is placed at the end of the
stage direction, aer the closing parenthesis. Stage directions which
occupy a line on their own are indented further than the text, and set
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
in italic type without parentheses. No extra space is inserted between
speakers. us for example:
It will teach other scoundrels to respect widows and
orphans. Do you forget that there is such a thing as justice?
(gaily shaking out the nished coat) Oh, if you are going to
dress yourself in ermine and call yourself Justice, I give you up. You are
just your uncle over again; only he gets
a year for it, and you do it
for nothing.
She holds the coat up to see whether any further repairs are needed.
(sulkily)
You tw
ist my words very cleverly.
(Captain Brassbound’s Conversion,
)
In verse quotations, the speakers’ names are positioned to the le
of the text:
(aside) Glamis, and ane of Cawdor:
e greatest is behind.—anks for your pains.
(To Banquo) Do you not hope your children shall be kings,
When those that gave the ane of Cawdor to me,
Promised no less to them?
at
trusted home
Migh
t yet enkindle you unto the crown,
Besi
des the ane of Cawdor.
(Macbeth, . . –)
9.6 OMISSIONS
Omissions within prose quotations should be marked by an ellipsis
(three points within square brackets; see .). Omitted lines of verse
should be marked by an ellipsis on a separate line:
I am not covetous for gold,
[…]
But if it be a sin to covet honour
I am the most oending soul alive.
It is not normally necessary to use an ellipsis at the beginning or end
of a quotation; almost all quotations will be taken from a larger context
and there is usually no need to indicate this obvious fact unless the
sense of the passage quoted is manifestly incomplete.
9.
9.7 COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSIONS
It is the responsibility of an author to obtain any necessary permission
for quotation of copyright material. e author should ensure that
permission to reproduce material in all territories and all media (e.g.
print and electronic) is granted.
Normally it is unnecessary to seek permission for the quotation of
brief passages in a scholarly work, but it is not possible to give a denitive
ruling to indicate when it is necessary to seek permission: copyright laws
are not the same in all countries, and publishers hold diering views on
the subject. If in doubt, authors should consult their editors.
In general it may be said that the length of the quoted passage and
the use to which it is put should be fair to the author and publisher of
the work quoted in that nothing is done to diminish the value of their
publication.
Complete items such as tables, illustrations, and poems must not be
reproduced without permission. (See also ...)
On private correspondence, see also .. below.
e British Academy and the Publishers Association have
published Joint Guidelines on Copyright and Academic Research
at <http://www.britac.ac.uk/policy/joint-copyright-guide.cfm>.
10
FOOTNOTES AND
ENDNOTES
10.1 GENERAL
e term ‘notes’ as used in this chapter applies equally to footnotes and
to endnotes (i.e. references printed at the end of an article, chapter, or
book).
Notes are an interruption to the reader and should be kept down to
what is strictly necessary. ey are intended primarily for documentation
and for the citation of sources relevant to the text. ey should not
be used to provide additional bibliographical material on the general
subject being treated, but which is not directly needed. Nor should
they normally include extra expository material. Such material, if
apposite and useful, is oen better incorporated into the text or added
as an appendix. Only aer the most careful consideration should it be
included in a note.
All notes, whether or not they form complete sentences, should end
with full stops.
10.2 METHODS OF LIMITING NOTES
Simple references (such as line numbers or page references to a book
already cited in full) can usually be incorporated in the text, normally
in parentheses aer quotations. A string of note references to the same
text can be avoided by stating aer the rst full note citation: ‘Further
references [to this edition, etc.] are given aer quotations in the text.’
(See also ..)
e number of notes can oen be kept down by grouping together,
in one note, references to several sources mentioned close together in
the same paragraph. In particular, adjacent references to several pages of
the same publication should be cited together in a single note. No note,
however, should document references for more than one paragraph.
Notes should not repeat information already clear from the text: if,
for example, the author has been named before a quotation there is no
10.
need to repeat the name in a note reference. If there is a bibliography
to a book or article, notes can also be reduced.
10.3 POSITION AND NUMBERING
Wherever possible, a note reference number should be placed at the
end of a sentence. Notes should be marked in the typescript by superior
(superscript) numbers, with no punctuation (full stops, parentheses, etc.),
in sequence throughout an article or chapter. A note reference number
should follow any punctuation (including a parenthesis) except a dash,
which it should precede. It should appear at the end of a quotation, not
following the author’s name if that precedes the quotation.
A note reference number in the text should never be repeated
to refer to the same note; if the same material has to be referred to
again, a parenthetical reference in the text — ‘(see note above)’ — is
the best method, though a new note using those words is a possible
alternative.
Do not attach a note number to a heading or subheading; an asterisk
may, however, be used to indicate a general note to an entire chapter.
Nor should a note number (or, indeed, an asterisk) be attached to the
title of an article; a note attached to the rst or last sentence, or an
unnumbered note preceding the numbered ones, is preferable.
11
REFERENCES
11.1 GENERAL
References (in the body of the text or in notes) should document
the information oered, to allow the reader to check the source of a
quotation or the evidence on which an argument is based. A reference
must therefore enable the reader to nd the source referred to as quickly
and easily as possible.
A work of literature should be quoted or referred to in a satisfactory
scholarly edition. If a literary or critical work is published both in the
UK and overseas, the UK edition should be used unless there are special
reasons for doing otherwise. If an edition other than the rst is used,
this should be stated. If an unrevised reprint is used (such as a modern
facsimile reprint of an out-of-print work or a paperback reissue of an
earlier book), the publication details of the original edition as well as of
the reprint should be given. Details of original publication should also
be provided where an article from a journal is reprinted in an anthology
of criticism (see ..): a reader looking for the article in a library is oen
more likely to nd the original journal than the anthology. In referring
to works of literature of which several editions may be available, it is
oen helpful to give the reader more information than merely the page
number of the edition used:
p. (Book , Chapter )
Similarly, when quoting a letter from a collection, it may be helpful to
cite the date as well as the page number:
p. ( April )
Full references to well-known works (OED, DNB, etc.) are normally
unnecessary, though for encyclopedias and biographical dictionaries
of multiple authorship it is oen relevant to name the writer of the
article cited.
11. references
11. 2 FORMS OF REFERENCE
11.2.1 G
Except when the author–date system (see .) is used or when full
details are given in a separate bibliography, the rst reference to a book,
article, or other publication should be given in full and later references
in an easily identiable abbreviated form (see .).
11.2.2 B
Full references should be given as in the following examples of
monographs, edited volumes, and editions of texts (a commentary
follows):
(i)
Tom McArthur, Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning
and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, ), p. .
(ii)
Jean Starobinski, Montaigne in Motion, trans. by Arthur
Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ),
p. .
(iii) H. Munro Chadwick and N. Kershaw Chadwick, e Growth of
Literature,
vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, –
; repr. ), , p. xiii.
(iv) José Amador de los Ríos, Historia crítica de la literatura española,
vols (Madrid: the author, –; repr. Madrid: Gredos, ),
(), –.
(v) Debra Linowitz Wentz, Fait et ction: les formules pédagogiques
des ‘Contes d’une grand-mère’ de George Sand (Paris: Nizet,
),
p. .
(vi) Approaches to Teaching Voltaire’s ‘Candide’, ed. by R. Waldinger
(New York: Modern Language Association of America,
), pp.
, , .
(vii) Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ed. by Joseph R. Strayer and others,
vols (New York: Scribner,
–), (), .
(viii)
Carlos Fuentes, Aura, ed. by Peter Standish, Durham Modern
Language Series: Hispanic Texts, (Durham: University of Durham,
), pp. – (p. ).
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
(ix)
Emily Dickinson: Selected Letters, ed. by omas H. Johnson,
nd edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
), pp.
–.
(x) Boswell: e English Experiment 1785–1789, ed. by Irma S. Lustig
and Frederick A. Pottle, e Yale Edition of the Private Papers of
James Boswell (London: Heinemann; New York: McGraw Hill,
), pp. –.
(xi)
e Works of omas Nashe, ed. by Ronald B. McKerrow, nd edn,
rev. by F. P. Wilson, vols (Oxford: Blackwell, ), , – (pp.
–).
(xii) Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Sämtliche Werke, ed. by Rudolf Hirsch
and others (Frankfurt a.M.: Fischer,
– ), : Dramen, ed. by
Roland Haltmeier (), pp. –.
(xiii)
Sophocles, Fabulae, ed. by H. Lloyd-Jones and N. G. Wilson
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, ), pp. –.
(xiv)
Cornelius Tacitus, Opera minora, ed. by M. Winterbottom and
R. M. Ogilvie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, ), pp. v–x.
(xv)
omas Mann, Doktor Faustus: Das Leben des deutschen Tonsetzers
Adrian Leverkühn erzählt von einem Freunde, Stockholmer
Gesamtausgabe der Werke (Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer, ).
(xvi)
Luke Syson, with Larry Keith and others, Leonardo da Vinci:
Painter at the Court of Milan (London: National Gallery Company,
).
(xvii)
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, ed. by eodore Silverstein
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ).
e information should be given in the following order:
. Author: e author’s name should normally be given as it appears
on the title page; forenames should precede surnames and should not
be reduced to initials. However, classical names should be given in the
nominative form even if the genitive is used on the title page: see examples
(xiii) and (xiv). e names of up to three authors should be given in full;
for works by more than three authors the name of only the rst should
be given, followed by ‘and others’ (see examples (vii) and (xvi)). If the
author’s name is included within the title (as, for example, in editions of
‘Works’), or if the book is an edited collection or anthology, the title will
appear rst (see examples (vi), (vii), (ix)–(xi)).
11. references
. Title: e title should be given as it appears on the title page (although
very long titles may be suitably abbreviated) and italicized. A colon should
always be used to separate title and subtitle, even where the punctuation
on the title page is dierent or (as oen happens) non-existent. For books
in English and German, capitalize the initial letter of the rst word aer
the colon and of all principal words (in German, all nouns) throughout
the title (see examples (i), (ix), (x), and (xv)); for titles in other languages,
follow the capitalization rules for the language in question (see . and
example (v)). If gures occur in titles, these should also be italicized (see
example (x)). Titles of other works occurring within the title should be
enclosed in quotation marks (see examples (v) and (vi)). For books (usually
older works) with alternative titles, punctuation before and aer ‘or’ should
be as follows:
e Queen; or, e Excellency of her Sex
All for Love; or, e World Well Lost
.
Edito
r, Translator, etc.: e names of editors etc. should be treated
in the same way as those of authors (as set out above) with regard to
forenames and number to be given; they should be preceded by the
accepted abbreviated forms ‘ed. by’, ‘trans. by’, ‘rev. by’ (see examples
(ii), (vi)–(xiv), and (xvii)). For multi-volume works where there is more
than one editor or a group of editors involved, the information should be
conveyed as in examples (vii), (x), and (xii); but see example (xi), where
only one editor is involved.
. Series: If a book is part of a numbered series, the series title and the
number (in arabic numerals) should be given (see example (viii)). However,
the name of the series may be omitted if it is unnumbered, unless the series
title itself conveys important information (see examples (x) and (xv)).
Series titles should not be italicized or put between quotation marks.
. Edition: If the edition used is other than the rst, this should be
stated in the form ‘
nd edn’, ‘
th edn’, ‘rev. edn’ (see examples (ix) and
(xi)).
.
Numbe
r of Volumes: If the work is in more than one volume, the
number of volumes should be given in the form ‘ vols’ (see examples (iii),
(iv), (vii), (xi)). Foreign equivalents, such as ‘tome’, ‘Band’, ‘tomo’, should
usually be rendered as ‘vol.’.
. Details of Publication: e place of publication, the name of the
publisher, and the date of publication should be enclosed in parentheses;
a colon separates the place from the publisher, a comma separates the
publisher from the date. Any detail of publication which is not given
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
in the book itself but can be ascertained should be enclosed in square
brackets, e.g. ‘[Paris]’, ‘[]’. For details that are assumed but uncertain,
use the form ‘[Paris(?)]’, ‘[(?)]’. If any detail is unknown and cannot be
ascertained, the following abbreviated forms of reference should be used:
‘[n.p.]’ (
=
no place), ‘[n. pub.]’ (
=
no publisher), ‘[n.d.]’ (
=
no date). Do not
use square brackets in a reference for any other purpose (for example,
when the reference is already in parentheses), otherwise the impression
may be conveyed that the information in square brackets is uncertain.
In giving the place of publication, the current English forms of place-
names should be used where these exist (e.g. Geneva, Milan, Munich,
Vienna; see ..). Frankfurt am Main can be abbreviated to Frankfurt
a.M. e two-letter abbreviated forms of names of American states (see .)
should be included if there is danger of confusion (e.g. Cambridge, MA;
Athens, GA). ese are not required if the name of the state appears in the
name of the publisher (e.g. Athens: University of Georgia Press). For books
published by the same publisher in more than one place, it is normally
sucient to refer only to the rst. Place of publication should be omitted
only when (as, for example, in a bibliographical article) there are likely
to be a great many references to books published at one place. In these
circumstances, provide an early note in the form of ‘Place of publication
of all books cited is London [or Paris, etc.] unless otherwise stated’.
e name of the publishing house (preceded by a colon) should be given
without secondary matter such as an initial denite article, ‘& Co.’, ‘Ltd’,
or ‘S.A.’. ‘Press’, ‘Verlag’, ‘Editorial’, etc. are usually omitted where the
name of the house is that of its proprietor or founder.
us for example:
Éditions de la Femme, Harvester Press, Oxford University Press,
Clarendon Press, Blackwell, Mellen, Laterza, Mitteldeutscher
Verlag
It is not normally necessary to include forenames or initials of
publishers, unless there are two or more with the same surname:
Brewer (not D. S. Brewer)
Heinemann (not William Heinemann)
Where a publisher’s name includes ‘and’ or ‘&’, the conjunction
should be given in the form which appears on the title page:
ames and Hudson; Grant & Cutler
A book which has more than one place of publication and a dierent
publisher in each place should be referred to as in example (x).
11. references
Details of facsimile reprints of old books should be given as in example
(iii) where the original publisher is responsible for the reprint, and as in
example (iv) where dierent publishers are involved. Example (iv) also
illustrates the appropriate form of reference to a work published by its
author.
A reference to a work in several volumes published over a period of years
but now complete should state the number of volumes and give inclusive
dates of publication and the date of the volume specically referred to
where this is not the rst or last in the series (see examples (iii), (iv), (vii)).
However, the date of the rst or last volume should be given if it was
published out of sequence. If a work in several volumes is incomplete and
still in the process of publication, the date of the rst volume should be
stated followed by a dash and a space, and the date of the individual volume
being cited should be added in parentheses aer the volume number (see
example (xii)). In some instances (for example, if each volume of a set has
a dierent editor) it may be more appropriate to give publication details
only for the volume cited.
. Volume Number: In a multi-volume work the number of the volume
referred to should be given in small capital roman numerals, followed
where necessary by the title and editor of the volume (if any) and by the
year of publication in parentheses (see examples (iv), (vii), (xii)). It is very
rarely necessary to insert ‘vol.’ before the volume number.
. Page Numbers: If a volume number is not cited or if it is distant (as
in example (xii)), ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’ should be inserted before the page number(s).
It is customary to omit ‘p./pp.’ when the volume number immediately or
closely precedes (see examples (iv), (vii), (xi)), unless the page number(s)
are also in roman numerals and a date does not intervene (see example
(iii)). If an entry relates to several successive pages, the rst and last page
numbers of the span should always be stated:
pp.
– (not pp. .)
If it is necessary to indicate a particular reference within a page span,
the specic page number(s) should be given in parentheses (see examples
(viii), (xi)).
Note that ‘folio’, ‘recto’, and ‘verso’ are abbreviated thus:
fol.
r
, fol.
v
, fols
v
–
r
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
11.2.3 C A B
Full references should be given as in the following examples:
(i)
Martin Elsky, ‘Words, ings, and Names: Jonson’s Poetry and
Philosophical Grammar’, in Classic and Cavalier: Essays on Jonson
and the Sons of Ben, ed. by Claude J. Summers and Ted-Larry
Pebworth (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, ), pp.
– (p. ).
(ii)
Fanni Bogdanow, ‘e Suite du Merlin and the Post-Vulgate
Roman du Graal’, in Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages:
A Collaborative History, ed. by Roger Sherman Loomis (Oxford:
Clarendon Press,
), pp. –.
(iii) R. P. Calcra, ‘e Lover as Icarus: Góngora’s ‘‘Qué de invidiosos
montes levantados’’ ’, in What’s Past Is Prologue: A Collection of
Essays in Honour of L. J. Woodward, ed. by Salvador Bacarisse
and others (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, ), pp. –
(p. ).
(iv)
Luis T. González-del-Valle, ‘Lo interpersonal en Presentimiento
de lobos: un estudio de los modos de transmisión’, in Estudios en
honor de Ricardo Gullón, ed. by Luis T. González-del-Valle and
Darío Villanueva (Lincoln, NE: Society of Spanish and Spanish-
American Studies,
), pp. –.
When a second item from a volume previously mentioned is to be listed,
use an abbreviated form, as in this example referring to the volume in
(ii) above:
(v) Eugène Vinaver, ‘e Prose Tristan’, in Arthurian Literature, ed.
by Loomis, pp. –.
Similar conventions apply in the case of an article in an issue of a journal
that has its own editor and a title:
(vi)
E. Glyn Lewis, ‘Attitudes to the Planned Development of Welsh’, in
e Sociology of Welsh, ed. by Glyn Williams (
=
International
Journal of the Sociology of Language, ()), pp. –.
e information should be given in the following order:
Author’s name, exactly as it appears in the book (see .., Author)
Title of chapter or article in single quotation marks
11. references
e word ‘in’ (preceded by a comma) followed by title, editor’s name,
and full publication details of book as in ..
First and last page numbers of item cited, preceded by ‘pp.’
Page number(s), in parentheses and preceded by ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’, of the
particular reference (if necessary)
A colon should be used to separate title and subtitle. For titles in
English and German, capitalize the initial letter of the rst word aer
the colon and all principal words (in German, all nouns) throughout
the title (including the subtitle) (see examples (i)–(iii)); for titles in other
languages, follow the capitalization rules for the language in question (see
. and example (iv)). e titles of works of literature occurring within
the titles of chapters or articles should be italicized or placed within
quotation marks, whichever is appropriate (see examples (ii), (iii), (iv)).
If quotation marks are used within the title, they should be double (see
example (iii)), since single quotation marks will already have been used
to enclose the title itself (see .).
If a particular page within a chapter or article is to be indicated, the
full page span should nevertheless be given in the rst full citation and
a reference to the particular page added in parentheses (see examples
(i) and (iii)).
Reference to an article in a book which has previously been published
in a journal should take one of the following forms:
Alfred L. Kellogg and Louis A. Haselmayer, ‘Chaucer’s Satire of the
Pardoner’, PMLA,
(
),
–
(repr. in Alfred L. Kellogg, Chaucer,
Langland, Arthur: Essays in Middle English Literature (New Brunswick,
NJ: Rutgers University Press, ), pp. –).
Edwin Honig, ‘Calderón’s Strange Mercy Play’, in Critical Essays on the
eatre of Calderón, ed. by Bruce W. Wardropper (New York: New
York University Press,
), pp.
–
(rst publ. in Massachusetts
Review, (), –).
e second form should be used if the collection of essays is more
generally available than the individual journal (which may be old or
obscure) or if reference is going to be made to several articles in the
collection, thus facilitating the use of a short form for later references
(see .).
Other subdivisions in books, when separately cited, should be treated
as seems appropriate according to this general pattern. us:
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
Troilus and Criseyde, in e Riverside Chaucer, ed. by Larry D. Benson,
rd edn (Boston: Houghton Miin, ), pp. –.
Marqués de Santillana, Inerno de los enamorados, in Poesías completas,
ed. by Miguel Ángel Pérez Priego, , Clásicos Alhambra, (Madrid:
Alhambra, ), pp. –.
11.2.4 A J
e rst reference should be given in full in a form similar to that in
the following examples:
(i)
Richard Hillyer, ‘In More than Name Only: Jonson’s “To Sir Horace
Vere”’, MLR, (), – (p. ).
(ii) L. T. Topseld, ‘Jois, Amors and Fin’ Amors in the Poetry of Jaufre
Rudel’, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen,
(), – (p. ).
(iii)
Victor Skretkowicz, ‘Devices and their Narrative Function in
Sidney’s Arcadia’, Emblematica, (), –.
(iv) J. D. Spikes, ‘e Jacobean History Play and the Myth of the Elect
Nation’, Renaissance Drama, n.s.,
(), –.
(v)
Robert F. Cook, ‘Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édiant?’, Olifant,
(), – (pp. –).
(vi)
Eduardo Urbina, ‘Don Quijote, puer–senex: un tópico y su
transformación paródica en el Quijote’, Journal of Hispanic
Philology, (–), –.
(vii) James Trainer, ‘Sophie an Ludwig Tieck: neu identizierte Briefe’,
Jahrbuch der deutschen Schillergesellscha,
(), – (p. ).
(viii) Carla Riccardi, ‘La prima “Colonna Infame”: l’Appendice storica
e la copia’, Studi di lologia italiana,
(), –.
(ix)
Nathalie Z. Davis, ‘Beyond the Market: Books as Gis in Sixteenth-
Century France’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, th
ser., (), –.
(x) Delphine Denis, ‘“À la manière de”: le pastiche avant le pastiche’,
Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France, (), –.
(xi)
Peter Sillitoe, review of Adam Max Cohen, Wonder in Shakespeare
(), MLR, (), –.
(xii)
[Anon.], review of Damian Catani, Evil: A History in Modern
French Literature and ought (), Forum for Modern Language
Studies, (), –.
11. references
e information should be given in the following order:
Author’s name, exactly as it appears in the article (see .., Author)
Title of article, in single quotation marks
Title of journal, italicized
Series number, in arabic numerals
Volume number, in arabic numerals
Year(s) of publication, in parentheses unless there is no volume number
First and last page numbers of article cited, not preceded by ‘pp.’
Page number(s), in parentheses and preceded by ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’, of the
particular reference (if necessary)
e use of the colon to separate the title and subtitle in an article, the
norms for capitalization within the title and subtitle, the treatment of
the titles of works of literature occurring within the titles of articles,
and references to particular pages within an article are, as the examples
illustrate, treated in the same way as for articles in books (see ..).
Note, however, that the page span of articles in journals is not preceded
by ‘pp.’.
Only the main title of a journal should be given. Any subtitle and the
place of publication should be omitted unless they serve to distinguish
between two journals of the same name. An initial denite or indenite
article should be omitted except when the title consists of the article and
one other word, e.g. La Linguistique. If the journal title is abbreviated
to initials, full stops should not be used (see example (i) and
.). e
titles of journals should be abbreviated only when the abbreviation
is likely to be familiar to all readers (e.g. PMLA), otherwise the title
should be given in full. If there are to be several references to the same
journal, an abbreviated title should be indicated aer the rst full
reference (e.g. French Studies (hereaer FS)) or in a preliminary list of
abbreviations. For the proceedings of learned societies, etc., the name of
the organization should be italicized as part of the title (e.g. Proceedings
of the British Academy).
e volume number should be given in arabic numerals, no matter
what the style preferred by the journal (e.g. Medium Aevum,
, not
). e number should not be preceded by ‘vol.’. If a journal has
restarted publication with a new numbering, this should be indicated
by e.g. ‘n.s.’ (
=
‘new series’) or ‘th ser.’ before the volume number (see
examples (iv) and (ix)).
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
If the separate issues of a journal cover an academic year rather
than a calendar year, this should be indicated as in example (vi). If the
publication of a volume of a journal has been considerably delayed, the
actual year of publication should be given in square brackets aer the
ocial year (e.g.
[]).
e month or season of publication or the part number of an issue
of a journal may be omitted if the volume as a whole is continuously
paginated; but it can be helpful to include this information, and in any
case it must be given if the part numbers are paginated individually, as
in these examples:
Lionel Trilling, ‘In Manseld Park’, Encounter, . (September ),
–.
José Luis Pardo, ‘Filosofía y clausura de la modernidad’, Revista de
Occidente, (November ), –.
E. Iukina, ‘Dostoinstvo cheloveka’, Novyi mir, , no. , –.
For the formulation to be used in referring to a journal article in an
issue that has its own editor and a title, see .., example (vi).
11.2.5 A N M
References to articles in newspapers or magazines (periodical
publications other than scholarly journals) require only the date of
issue (day, month, and year), the section where relevant (e.g. ‘Reviews
section’, ‘section G’), and the page number(s) (but note that these may
vary between editions); volume or part numbers should not be included:
Michael Schmidt, ‘Tragedy of ree Star-Crossed Lovers’, Daily Telegraph,
February , p. .
Jonathan Friedland, ‘Across the Divide’, Guardian, January ,
section G, pp. –.
Jacques-Pierre Amette, ‘é et désespoir’, Le Point, October ,
p. .
Carlos Bousoño, ‘La ebriedad de un poeta puro’, El País, May ,
p. .
Initial ‘e’ or ‘A’ is normally omitted when citing English-language
newspapers and magazines, with the exception of e Times. e date
of issue (with the month always in English) should be given between
commas, not parentheses, and the page number(s) should be preceded
11. references
by ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’. Otherwise the method of citation is the same as for other
articles (see .. and ..).
11.2.6 T D
e titles of unpublished theses and dissertations should be in roman
type within single quotation marks; capitalization should follow the
conventions of the language in question (see .). e degree level (where
known), university, and date should be in parentheses:
R. J. Ingram, ‘Historical Drama in Great Britain from
to the Present’
(unpublished doctoral thesis, University of London, Birkbeck College,
), p. .
Diedrich Diederichsen, ‘Shakespeare und das deutsche Märchendrama’
(unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Hamburg,
), p. .
Mary Taylor, ‘e Legend of Apollonius of Tyre in Spanish and French
Literature before ’ (unpublished master’s thesis, University of
Manchester, ), pp. –.
James-Louis Boyle, ‘Marcel Proust et les écrivains anglais’ (unpublished
thesis, University of Paris,
), p. .
Note that American universities distinguish between a master’s ‘thesis’
and a doctoral ‘dissertation’:
Barbara Jean Trisler, ‘A Comparative Study of the Character Portrayal
of Celestina and Other Golden Age Celestinesque Protagonists’
(unpublished master’s thesis, University of Oklahoma, ), p. .
William Eugene Simeone, ‘Sir Richard Fanshawe: An Account of his
Life and Writings’ (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Pennsylvania, ), pp. –.
If a published abstract of an unpublished thesis or dissertation is known
to exist, the information should be given:
Jon Vaden Anderson, ‘A Woman’s Work: Feminist Tensions in the
Victorian Novel’ (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Christian
Univ., ; abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International, (),
).
11.2.7 P L W
e rst full reference to a play or long work should indicate the edition
used (see
.
.
(xi)–(xiii)). Small capital roman numerals should be used
for the numbers of acts of plays, and for the numbers of ‘books’ and
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
other major subdivisions. Smaller subdivisions (scenes, cantos, chapters,
etc.) and line numbers are usually indicated by arabic numerals. Later
references and the identication of quotations should be given in the
form: Macbeth, .
. –, Samson Agonistes, . . Note that gures
in references should be separated by full stops (not commas) and spaces,
e.g.
e Merchant of Venice, . . ; e Faerie Queene, . . ; Paradise
Lost, . –; Aeneid, . –; Inferno, . ; City of God, .
11.2.8 T B
References should be in the following form: Isaiah . ; Corinthians
. –. Note that books of the Bible are not italicized; roman numerals
are used for the numbers of books, arabic numerals (separated by a full
stop) for chapters and verses.
11.2.9 M
Names of repositories and collections should be given in full in the
rst instance and an abbreviated form should be used for subsequent
references. e degree of abbreviation which may be acceptable will
depend upon the frequency with which a particular repository, collection,
or manuscript is referred to and upon any possible ambiguities. e
names of manuscript collections should be given in roman type without
quotation marks and the citation of manuscripts within collections
should be according to the system of classication of the repository.
e following examples show a suggested method of citation for rst
references and possible models for later references. Note that, because of
the danger of ambiguity, the abbreviations ‘fol.’ and ‘fols’ are preferred
to ‘f.’ and ‘.’. e abbreviated and superscript forms for ‘recto’ and
‘verso’ are also preferred.
First reference: London, British Library, MS Cotton Caligula D III,
fol.
Later references: MS Cotton Caligula D III, fols
v
–
r
First reference: Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley
Later references: MS Bodley
First reference:
She
eld Central Library (CL), MS Fitzwilliam E.
Later references:
She
eld CL, MS Fitzwilliam E.
11. references
First reference: Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF), MS fonds
français
Later references: BnF, MS f. fr.
First reference:
Flor
ence, Biblioteca Riccardiana (BRF), MS
Later references:
BRF, M
S , fol.
r
First reference: Paris, Archives Nationales (AN), H. bis.
Later references: AN, H. bis.
11.2.10 P C
e copyright of all forms of private correspondence (including emails)
belongs to the sender, and permission is needed (even for the recipient)
to quote from it.
11.2.11 DOI URL
Material published online, whether at news websites, as part of electronic
journals, or found only on personal web pages, should be cited as
carefully as material published in print form. Similarly, authors should
exercise the same discretion in considering the quality and value of
material published on the Internet as they would for material published
by more traditional means.
In general, the location of online resources should be given either by
DOI or by URL, but not both. Transmitted messages, such as tweets or
emails, are an exception (see .. below), but blog posts are not.
DOIs, or Digital Object Identiers, are analogous to ISBNs for books,
and are intended to provide a persistent reference. Papers in electronic
journals oen have DOIs, as do many OECD and European Union
publications; but blog postings and personal material will not. If a DOI
is cited, no date of access need be quoted, since it is a reliable long-term
reference (see .., example (i)).
URLs, or Universal Resource Locators, are the addresses used by web
browsers. Properly they can refer not only to regular and authenticated
web pages, introduced ‘http://’ and ‘https://’ respectively, but also les
on FTP servers (‘p://’) and other resources: this prex is called the
‘protocol’, and should always be included. (In some browsers the presence
of an initial ‘http://’ may be concealed by the address bar, but will
reappear aer a copy and paste: it is part of the address regardless.)
When citing a URL, take care to follow the format exactly and
remember that addresses are case-sensitive. Where there is any choice,
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
give the shortest appropriate form. For example, avoid a URL followed
by long query strings (a question mark plus one or many ID numbers)
if, in fact, the address works without these. Do not quote URLs from
services such as tinyurl or bitly which abbreviate other URLs (for
example, to t into a tweet): quote the originals.
URLs are used for ephemera as well as lasting resources, and it is not
uncommon for pages to move within a domain name (for example, for
a news story to move within news.bbc.co.uk), to change domain name
altogether, or to be taken down without warning. Because of this, a date
of access should always be given when quoting a URL (for example,
‘[accessed July ]’). Before submitting copy for publication, any
URLs in it should be checked and if necessary updated, particularly if
they are le over from dras written months or years previously.
URLs are sometimes much longer than DOIs. When submitting
a URL as part of word-processed copy, do not include line breaks or
hyphenation, however ugly the result may look: leave it to the typesetter
to deal with. When typesetting a URL, it may be necessary to divide
the address over two lines. is should always be done aer a forward
slash, and hyphenation should not be used.
11.2.12 O A
As far as possible, follow the style used for printed publications as
detailed above. Information should be given in the following order:
Author’s name
Title of item
Title of complete work/resource
Publication details (volume, issue, date, page span if paginated)
Full address (Universal Resource Locator (URL)) or DOI of the resource
(in angle brackets)
Date at which the resource was consulted (in square brackets)
Location of passage cited (in parentheses)
For example:
(i) Els Jongeneel, ‘Art and Divine Order in the Divina Commedia’,
Literature and eology, (), - <http://dx.doi.org/./
litthe/frm>
11. references
(ii)
Richard Lee, ‘e Rebirth of Inherited Memories’, MHRA Working
Papers in the Humanities, (), - <http://www.mhra.org.
uk/ojs/index.php/wph/article/viewFile//> [accessed May
]
(iii) Steve Sohmer, ‘e Lunar Calendar of Shakespeare’s King Lear’,
Early Modern Literary Studies, . () <http://purl.oclc.org/
emls/-/sohmlear.htm> [accessed January ] (para. of
)
If a URL is given which is not based on a DOI, then give also the date
on which the relevant section of the resource was last accessed; this
will ensure that the accuracy of your reference will not be undermined
by any subsequent changes to the resource. Example (i) has a DOI, so
needs no access date.
Where section numbers or numbered paragraphs appear in the
original document, they can be used to give the location of a citation.
Do not attempt to infer page or line numbers from on-screen documents
since they may vary according to the browser used.
11.2.13 E
For ebooks, give the place of publication (which would be based on the
location of the oces of the publisher), the publisher, the year, and an
indication of the kind of digital le, giving page numbers or section
details only if these are xed and stable. For example:
Nicolas Jacobs, Early Welsh Gnomic and Nature Poetry (London: Modern
Humanities Research Association, ), p. . Google ebook.
11.2.14 O D
Online databases may be unique electronic publications, or they may
provide collections of electronic versions of existing printed publications.
For the latter it is preferable, wherever possible, to cite the details of
original print editions (see also .).
e rst example refers to an article in an online encyclopedia:
Kent Bach, ‘Performatives’, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
<http://www.rep.routledge.com> [accessed October ]
e following is a reference to an individual poem included in a
full-text online database:
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
E. E. (Edward Estlin) Cummings, ‘maggie and milly and molly and may’,
in Literature Online <http://lion.chadwyck.co.uk> [accessed June
]
In the nal example a complete book of poetry with its original
pagination has been included in a database forming part of a larger
resource:
Davis McCombs, ‘Star Chamber’, in Ultima ule (New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, ), p. , in Database of Twentieth-Century
American Poetry in Literature Online <http://lion.chadwyck.co.uk>
[accessed September ]
11.2.15 Social Media
Given the rapid developments in social media in recent years, it is
impossible to predict which media will be in common use in ve or
ten years’ time, but the guidelines given here are intended to serve as a
model that could be adapted to future media.
Blog postings should be cited by URL, as in .. above. Many
blogs support Permalinks, URLs designed to be stable and human-
readable, and this should be the form quoted where possible, even if it
recapitulates much of the title:
Stephen Andrew Hiltner, ‘On Press with “e Paris Review”’, <http://
www.theparisreview.org/blog////on-press-with-the-paris-
review/> [accessed March ]
Short postings to social networks, such as Twitter or Facebook,
should be given in full, with the same spelling and punctuation used
in the original, and if necessary with an indication of the medium such
as ‘(tweet)’; @handles and hashtags should be preserved. Care should
be taken to identify the original rather than an echo such as a retweet.
Postings should be identied by the writer and date, but time of day
is unnecessary, and no URL is given. e writer should be identied
by both real name and, in parentheses, the username or handle being
used, unless the handle alone is identiable as it stands. For example:
Sarkozy’s campaign oce made regular use of social media to push
talking points from his stump speech, tweeting, for example: ‘“J’ai
besoin de vous. J’ai besoin de votre courage. J’ai besoin de votre énergie.
J’ai besoin de votre enthousiasme.” Bordeaux’ (@NicolasSarkozy,
March ).
11. references
Email is not a social medium in the same sense. Authors should
exercise great discretion in quoting from private emails, postings made
to members-only mailing lists, text messages, or online conversations in
chat-rooms (unless as part of an interview being published). ese are
essentially private communications and are subject to the same ethical
and legal rules as personal letters. e consent of the writer is needed,
even if the recipient is the person publishing the quotation. If an email
is quoted from, the writer should be identied by real name alone, that
is, not by email address, and an indication such as ‘(email to the author,
April )’ should be added to indicate the medium.
11.2.16 R, F, D M, S-
Reference to recordings of music or speech should incorporate the
following items, as relevant: composer or author; title of piece and/or
compilation, in italics; artist, orchestra, conductor, etc., separated by
commas; recording company, CD reference, and date in parentheses.
Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Concerto no. 5, Mitsuko Uchida,
Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, cond. by Kurt
Sanderling (Phillips, -, ).
Ballads of Love and Betrayal, Joglaresa, dir. by Belinda Sykes (Village
Life, VL, ).
Dylan omas, Under Milk Wood, read by Anthony Hopkins and
Jonathan Pryce (LPF , ).
First names of composers, artists, conductors, may be omitted if not
deemed necessary.
For lms, the reference should include, as a minimum, title, director,
distributor, date, e.g.:
e Grapes of Wrath, dir. by John Ford (th Century Fox, ).
Names of artists may be given aer that of the director. First names may
be omitted if not deemed necessary. If a video reference is available, it
should be added at the end.
References to material published on CD or DVD should follow the
format outlined in ..–.., but with the addition at the end of the
phrase ‘[on CD]’, ‘[on DVD]’, etc., as appropriate.
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
References to online digital media should include the author, the
title in italics, the type of source, the title of the website, the date of
publication, the URL, and the date of access, e.g.:
Gabriel Dominato, Morceaux de conversation avec Jean-Luc
Godard, online video recording, YouTube, January ,
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_XcuHub-So> [accessed
October ].
References to soware should provide the author or designer (if
identiable), the title in italics, the date, and the platform, e.g.:
Emily Short, Galatea (), Z-machine.
Id Soware, Doom (), MS-DOS and subsequently other platforms.
Neil McFarland and Ken Wong for Ustwo, Monument Valley (), iOS
and Android.
11.2.17 B
References to television or radio broadcasts should give the title of the
specic programme, if there is one, in single quotation marks, and the
title of the series in italics, together with the date and (if relevant) the
time of transmission. For example:
‘Green Shoots from the Arab Spring’, Analysis, BBC Radio , November
.
Newsnight, BBC, November , .pm.
11.2.18 W A
References to works of art should include at least the name of the artist
(if known), the title of the work in italics (see also . above), its date
(if known), and the medium of composition. Titles should normally be
given in their most customary English-language form. Depending on
the medium, the dimensions (in cm), and a current physical location
or source may also be given. When giving dimensions, note the use of
a multiplication sign, not a lower case ‘x’, and the space around it. For
example:
Piero della Francesca, e Flagellation, c. , oil and tempera on panel,
× cm, Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino.
Henry Moore, Reclining Woman: Elbow, , bronze, Leeds Art Gallery,
Leeds.
11. references
Ansel Adams, Monolith, e Face of Half Dome, photograph, from
Parmelian Prints of the High Sierras (San Francisco: Grabhorn Press,
).
Alphonse Mucha, Bières de la Meuse, , colour lithograph, . ×
. cm <http://www.muchafoundation.org/gallery/browse-works/
object/> [accessed December ].
11. 3 LATER REFERENCES
In all references to a book or article aer the rst, the shortest intelligible
form should be used. is applies also in a monograph, even if the
work is cited in more than one chapter. e abbreviated reference will
normally be the author’s name followed by the volume (if applicable)
and page reference:
McArthur, p. .
Chadwick and Chadwick, , .
Elsky, pp. – (p. ).
Sometimes, particularly in the case of editions of ‘Works’ or collections
of essays, a short-title form of reference may be more appropriate:
Boswell, p. .
Chaucer, Langland, Arthur, pp.
– (p. ).
omas Nashe, ,
.
e short title of a multi-author edited collection should be followed by
the name(s) of the editor(s):
Susanne Woods, ‘e Context of Jonson’s Formalism’, in Classic and
Cavalier, ed. by Summers and Pebworth, pp. –.
If no ambiguity is possible, the (volume and) page numbers should
be given alone and preferably be included in parentheses within the
text rather than as a note (see
.
). Sometimes it may be necessary,
for example when more than one work by an author has been cited, to
repeat a title, in a shortened form:
McArthur, Worlds of Reference, p. .
If there can be no doubt which author is being referred to but more than
one of his or her works has been cited, use the short title of the specic
work followed by the page reference:
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
Worlds of Reference, p. .
‘e Lover as Icarus’, p.
.
e expressions ‘loc. cit.’ and ‘op. cit.’ are too vague and should not
be used. e term ‘ibid.’ should be used very sparingly and limited to
those situations where there is no possibility of confusion, such as aer
a second reference which is separated from its predecessor by no more
than four lines of typescript. Do not use ‘ibid.’ to abbreviate only part
of a reference: use ‘Ibid., pp. –’ not ‘Jones, ibid., pp. –’. Use the
capitalized form ‘Ibid.’ at the start of a note. ‘Id.’ should be avoided since
the Latin idem refers only to a single male author.
11. 4 CITATION BY THE AUTHORDATE SYSTEM
e author–date system requires all bibliographical references to be
placed at the end of a book, article, or thesis in alphabetical order by
names of author(s) or editor(s), followed by date of publication. e
form recommended for use in MHRA publications is as in the following
examples:
Crystal, David. . An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and
Languages, rd edn (Oxford: Blackwell)
Hermetet, Rachel. . ‘e Criterion et les littératures européennes,
–’, in Revues modernistes anglo-américaines: lieux d’échanges,
lieux d’exil, ed. by Benoît Tadié (Paris: Ent’revues), pp. –
MacAulay, Donald (ed.). . e Celtic Languages (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press)
Friedland, Jonathan. . ‘Across the Divide’, Guardian, January,
section G, pp. –
Grady, Hugh. . ‘Falsta: Subjectivity between the Carnival and the
Aesthetic’, MLR, : –
In this last example, note the space between the colon and the page
reference.
Where there are two or more authors, we recommend the pattern:
Ogden, C. K., and I. A. Richards
rather than ‘Ogden, C. K. and I. A. Richards’ or ‘Ogden, C. K. and (or &)
Richards, I. A.’. Editors should be referred to by the abbreviations ‘(ed.)’
or ‘(eds)’. Note that some non-MHRA journals do not use quotation
marks for article titles.
11. references
If the list includes more than one work by the same author, a -em
dash (see . above) should be substituted for the name aer the rst
appearance and works should be listed in date order, e.g.:
Posner, Rebecca. . e Romance Languages (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press)
—— . Linguistic Change in French (Oxford: Clarendon Press)
If two or more works by the same author(s) have the same publication
date, they should be arranged in alphabetical order of title and
distinguished by adding letters aer the date (e.g. ‘a’, ‘b’).
References in the text should give in parentheses the surname(s) of
the author(s) (adding initials if needed to distinguish authors with the
same surname), the publication date of the work, and, where necessary,
a page reference, e.g.:
Pidgins contrast with creoles, which are created when pidgins acquire
native speakers (Crystal : ).
‘e inuence of Language upon ought has attracted the attention of
the wise and foolish alike’ (Ogden and Richards : ).
is is described as ‘a comic-strip style of depiction which was common
in medieval book-illustration’ (Doyle, Rainey, and Wilson : ).
When the author’s name is given in the text, it should not be repeated
in the reference. In such cases, the reference either follows the name
or, if this seems stylistically preferable, may come at some other point
in the same sentence:
Smith (: ) argues that […]
Smith, who was known for his contentious views, replied (: ) that
[…]
Smith regards this interpretation as ‘wholly unacceptable’ (: ).
If original documents are referred to, an abbreviated form of reference
should appear in parentheses in the text and a separate list should appear
at the end of the text preceding or following the list of published sources
(which may include unpublished theses and dissertations since they have
specic authors). e items in the list should be arranged in systematic
(e.g. alphabetical) order. e following examples illustrate, in the le-
hand column, the abbreviations used in the text and, in the right-hand
column, the full references:
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
BL MS Cotton Nero A.x. London, British Library, MS Cotton Nero
A.x.
CRO, Probate
Carlisle, Cumberland Record Oce, Probate
Records
NLS Adv. MS ..
Edinburgh, National Library of Scotland,
Adv. MS ..
ASV, Cons. X Secr.
Venice, Archivio di Stato, Consiglio dei X,
Secreta
11. 5 CROSSREFERENCES
Avoid, as far as possible, cross-references within an article or book.
e page numbers in the printed article or book will not, of course,
coincide with those in the typescript, and numerous references of this
kind will therefore involve considerable extra work for author, editor,
and typesetter, and will increase the possibility of error. Cross-references
to pages can sometimes be avoided by giving references to chapters,
sections, or notes, if the notes are numbered consecutively throughout
each chapter or article: ‘See Chapter ’, ‘See Section .’, ‘See Chapter ,
n. ’, ‘See above at n. ’. Use ‘above’ and ‘below’, not ‘supra’ and ‘infra’.
In your word-processed document, do not use automatic cross-reference
tags or codes referring to databases rather than containing actual text.
11. 6 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
In an alphabetical bibliography that does not follow the author–date
system described in . above, the surname of the author or editor whose
surname governs the alphabetical position will precede the forename(s)
or initial(s). Do not reverse the normal order for collaborating authors
or editors other than the rst quoted. Anonymous works are listed
under their title, ignoring any initial denite or indenite article when
determining alphabetical order. e following examples illustrate these
points:
Chadwick, H. Munro, and N. Kershaw Chadwick, e Growth of
Literature, vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, –;
repr. )
Cook, Robert F., ‘Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édiant?’, Olifant,
(), –
11. references
Fuentes, Carlos, Aura, ed. by Peter Standish, Durham Modern Language
Series: Hispanic Texts, (Durham: University of Durham, )
Johnson, omas H., ed., Emily Dickinson: Selected Letters, nd edn
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, )
McKerrow, Ronald B., ed., e Works of omas Nashe, nd edn, rev. by
F. P. Wilson, vols (Oxford: Oxford University Press, )
e Quest of the Holy Grail, trans. and intro. by P. M. Matarasso
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, )
Strayer, Joseph R., and others, eds, Dictionary of the Middle Ages, vols
(New York: Scribner, –), ()
Welsh, Alexander, ‘e Inuence of Cervantes’, in e Cambridge
Companion to Cervantes, ed. by Anthony J. Cascardi (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, ), pp. –
If the list includes more than one work by the same author, a -em
dash should be substituted for the name aer the rst appearance (see
.), and the works should be arranged in alphabetical order of title,
disregarding initial denite or indenite articles.
If two or more essays in the same edited volume are cited, the
bibliography should have separate entries for each essay. In general,
it is sensible to avoid creating cross-references to an edited volume,
especially within a very large bibliography or one with various sections.
Where many of the books cited in the bibliography have the same
place of publication (e.g. London or Paris), this may be abbreviated (‘L’
or ‘P’) or omitted, but there must be a general note to explain this at the
beginning of the bibliography (see .. under ). e titles of frequently
cited journals or series should also be abbreviated (without full stops)
and a list of these and the full forms given in a list of abbreviations:
MLR Modern Language Review
YES
Yearb
ook of English Studies
e system of abbreviations employed in e Year’s Work in Modern
Language Studies is widely used in the elds of language and literature. If
the bibliography covers other areas, a system of abbreviations generally
recognized within the eld should be used.
In a bibliography in list form, nal full stops aer each item should
not be used. In a long bibliography of foreign books the native forms
of the places of publication are sometimes preferable; and if formal
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
bibliographical descriptions of books are being given, the spelling of
the place of publication should be as given on the title page. Whereas
the length of an article will be clear from the citation of the rst and
last page numbers, the length of a book will not, unless the number of
pages is stated. Since readers will oen need to know whether to expect
a pamphlet or a lengthy volume, the number of pages should always be
stated in a bibliographical reference work (e.g. e Year’s Work in Modern
Language Studies or a volume in the series Research Bibliographies
and Checklists). e number of pages should be stated aer the
date (or, if the author–date system is used, aer the publisher); thus:
‘ pp.’, or ‘xvii + pp.’, or ‘ pp. + plates’, or ‘ pp. + CD’. It may
also be helpful to include such information in a bibliography placed at
the end of a book, article, or thesis.
Whatever system is adopted, it is essential to maintain consistency
of styling throughout a bibliography.
12
PREPARATION OF
INDEXES
12 .1 GENERAL
Publishers and printers expect the index to be submitted electronically.
Indexing facilities within word processors are not generally regarded as
satisfactory for compiling anything but the most rudimentary index.
e Society of Indexers (http://www.indexers.org.uk) issues
publications on indexing.
12 .2 WHAT TO INDEX
Most scholarly indexes should include subject-matter as well as names.
It is much easier to compile a name index, but the reader of a book on
America in the s who needs to know about mixed marriages or
monetary policy, and who nds nothing in the index between ‘Miller,
Arthur’ and ‘Monroe, Marilyn’, will feel cheated, and with good
reason.
Names of authors and critics whose work is engaged with (quoted,
disputed, mentioned in the main text, etc.) should always be indexed.
But if a note simply cites a source, perhaps to justify a remark made in
the text (‘Baudelaire had a dicult family,
’), then the author of that
source would not normally go into the index. Similarly, do not index
bibliography entries. Index literary works under their authors (e.g.:
‘Eliot, T. S., e Sacred Wood’) unless they are anonymous, or (as in the
case of some medieval texts) much better known under their titles.
12 . 3 ORGANIZATION
t 'PSNPTUUZQFTPGXPSLFHCJPHSBQIJFTPSDSJUJDBMTUVEJFT
a single index is normally best. For others (e.g. catalogues of
manuscript collections) several indexes may be needed.
t )FBEJOHTXJUIBTVCTUBOUJBMOVNCFSPGQBHFSFGFSFODFTTIPVME
be subdivided: no one wants to look at all thirty-seven pages
on which a person is mentioned in order to nd the one that
gives the date of birth. However, avoid an elaborate system
of sub-entries: for many books a single level of sub-entry is
sucient.
t "OFYDFQUJPOUPUIFATJOHMFMFWFMPGTVCFOUSJFTSVMFNBZCF
made in the case of a book dealing with very many works
and aspects of the life of a single author. Taking Charles
Baudelaire as an example, under the index entry for his
name, there may be a sub-entry ‘Poems’ and sub-sub-entries
listing the poems cited in the book, in alphabetical order of
title, as in this abbreviated illustration:
Archimbaud-Dufaÿs, Caroline ,
Baudelaire, Charles:
life:
circumstances of birth
death
family –; father, see Baudelaire, Joseph-François
poems:
‘À celle qui est trop gaie’
‘Abel et Caïn’
‘L’Albatros’
Baudelaire, Joseph-François , n.
t *U JT IFMQGVM UP JOEFY DPODFQUT BOE CSPBE UPQJDT CVU BMTP
helpful to group these as sub-entries under main entries
which a reader might plausibly look up. For instance, the
main entry ‘censorship’ might have ‘of television’ and ‘of
theatre’ as sub-entries.
t 3FNFNCFSUIBUBQQBSFOUMZJEFOUJDBMXPSETUIBUIBWFEJČFSFOU
TFOTFT PSSFQSFTFOUEJČFSFOUQBSUT PGTQFFDI NVTU OPUCF
grouped in a single entry.
t 4VCTUBOUJBM USFBUNFOU PG B UPQJD UISPVHIPVU TFWFSBM
consecutive pages is shown as e.g. ‘–’. However, passing
references to that topic on each of several consecutive pages
is shown as e.g. ‘, , , , ’.
t 4VCFOUSJFTTIPVMECFJOEJDBUFEPOUIFQBHFCZJOEFOUBUJPO
In the electronic copy, use a single tab character to achieve
this rather than a series of spaces.
12.
t *O HFOFSBM BWPJE TFWFSBM MFWFMT PG JOEFOUBUJPO TJODF UIJT
would lead to very short lines in a two-column index.
t A4FFBOEATFFBMTPTIPVMECFVTFETQBSJOHMZDSPTTSFGFSFODFT
are best kept to cases that are genuinely helpful.
t &OUSJFTTIPVMECFQMBDFEJOBMQIBCFUJDBMPSEFSJHOPSJOHBMM
diacritics.
t 8JUIJOBOFOUSZBOZTVCFOUSJFTNVTUBMTPCFJOBMQIBCFUJDBM
order, but an initial preposition does not count. In the
following example, ‘in legal documents’ is deemed to begin
with ‘l’, and so precedes ‘in medieval lyric’ which begins
with ‘m’:
Accademia della Crusca , ,
Albinus, De arte rhet. dial. n.
allegory , , –, –
in legal documents
in medieval lyric n.
12 . 4 STYLE
t &OUSJFTTIPVMECFHJOXJUIMPXFSDBTFMFUUFSTFYDFQUQSPQFS
names or words capitalized in the text). ey should end
without punctuation.
t /PDPNNBJTOFDFTTBSZCFUXFFOUIFFOUSZBOEUIFĕSTUQBHF
number, although a colon should be inserted if entries end in
a numeral (for instance, ‘Catch-22: , ’).
t "DPMPOBQQFBSTBUUIFFOEPGBOFOUSZPSTVCFOUSZPOMZJG
there are no page numbers to the entry itself. For instance,
‘Barnes, Julian:’ has a colon in the example below because
there are no general page references concerning him: all
of the references are in sub-entries referring to individual
books.
t -JTUTXJUIJOJOEFYFOUSJFTTIPVMECFEJWJEFECZTFNJDPMPOT
For instance, if a book of short stories is indexed and so are
the individual stories within it:
Barnes, Julian:
A History of the World in 10½ Chapters , -
‘e Stowaway’ ; ‘e Visitors’ ; ‘e Wars of
Religion’ ,
t 'PSDSPTTSFGFSFODJOHGPMMPXUIFTFFYBNQMFT
Dante, see Alighieri, Dante
Empson, William:
Argufying
and I. A. Richards
see also Practical Criticism
t 4QFDJBM GFBUVSFT TVDI BT QBHFT XJUI JMMVTUSBUJPOT PS XJUI
substantial bibliographical references, may be indicated by
bold or italic numerals, but such devices should be used
sparingly, lest they distract the user.
t 'PSJODMVTJWFOVNCFSTVTFUIFDPOWFOUJPOTQFDJĕFEJOŤŞ
e.g. ‘–’ (not ‘–’ or ‘–’) but ‘–’ (not
‘–’).
t 1BHFSFGFSFODFTUPGPPUOPUFTTIPVMECFHJWFOJOUIFGPSNAŠŝ
n. ’, meaning note on page . ere should be spaces on
either side of ‘n.’. If two notes on the same page are referred
to, use the form ‘ nn. & ’, with an ampersand.
t "WPJE AČ XIFSF BO FYQMJDJU QBHF SBOHF DBO CF HJWFO GPS
JOTUBODFAşŠoşţSBUIFSUIBOAşŠČ4JNJMBSMZBWPJEVTJOHAG
to mean ‘and the page aer’.
13
USEFUL WORKS OF
REFERENCE
Booth, Pat F., Indexing: e Manual of Good Practice (Munich: Saur, 2001)
BS ISO 999:1996: Information and Documentation: Guidelines for the
Content, Organization and Presentation of Indexes (London: British
Standards Institution, 1996)
BS 5261-1:2000: Copy Preparation and Proof Correction: Design and Layout
of Documents (London: British Standards Institution, 2000)
Butcher, Judith, Caroline Drake, and Maureen Leach, Butcher’s Copy-
Editing: e Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Copy-Editors and
Proofreaders, 4th edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Buttereld, Jeremy, Fowler’s Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 4th edn
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015)
e Chicago Manual of Style, 16th edn (Chicago and London: University
of Chicago Press, 2010)
Gibaldi, Joseph, MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th edn
(New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2009)
—— MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, 3rd edn (New
York: Modern Language Association of America, 2008)
Li, Xia, and Nancy Crane, Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing
Electronic Information, 2nd edn (Medford, NJ: Information Today,
1996)
Marsh, David, and Amelia Hodson, Guardian Style, 3rd edn (London:
Guardian, 2010)
Merriam-Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 2nd edn (Springeld,
MA: Merriam-Webster, 1998)
Mulvany, Nancy C., Indexing Books, 2nd edn (Chicago and London:
University of Chicago Press, 2005)
New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors: e Essential A–Z Guide to
the Written Word, revised edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014)
MHRA STYLE GUIDE
88
New Oxford Style Manual, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012)
14
PROOF CORRECTION
It is common for proofs to be emailed as PDF les rather than sent as hard
copy. e author should consult with the editor whether proofs should be
printed o and changes marked on the hard copy, or whether they may be
communicated in a list in a separate email.
Make all corrections distinctly in ink in the margins; marks made
in the text should be those indicating the place to which the correction
refers and should not obliterate the text to be corrected. An alteration is
made by striking through, or marking as indicated in the table below, the
character(s) or word(s) to be altered, and writing the new material in the
margin, followed by a concluding stroke ( / ). If several corrections occur
in one line they should be divided between le and right margins, the
order being from le to right in each margin; individual marks should be
separated by a concluding stroke. Author corrections should be avoided at
proof stage. However, if such changes are essential, authors should be aware
that substantial additions or deletions will aect layout and pagination and
the editor may insist on further changes within the page to compensate for
the text added or deleted. Publishers and journals may reserve the right to
charge for substantial changes.
When checking nal proofs, ensure not only that each correction
marked on earlier proofs has been made, but also that no further errors
have been introduced during the process of correction. Check line endings,
page breaks, running heads, and page numbers carefully. It is safer to check
these points as a separate operation aer reading through the proofs in
the normal way.
Normally only matter to be substituted for, or added to, the existing
text should be written on the proof. If, however, there are any problems
or comments to be brought to the attention of the printer, they should be
written on the proof, encircled, and preceded by the word ‘PRINTER’ (in
capitals). Do not give lengthy directions to the printer when a simple proof-
correction mark will suce.
Marked proof of text
14.
References are to sections
abbreviations
American states ., ..
capitalized .
currency .
editors .
endnotes .
footnotes .
full stop ., .
italics .
journal titles .., .
manuscript references ..
postal .
quotations .
references ., .., .., .
titles .
weights and measures .
abbreviations list ..
glossary .
titles .
academic qualications .
accents:
capitals .
see also diacritics
acceptance for publication ..
accounts number columns .
acknowledgements .., .
additions ..
adjectives capitalized .
adverbs hyphenation .
alphabets .., ..
amendments minor ..
American states .
abbreviated names ..
American universities ..
angle brackets ., ..
anthology of criticism .
apostrophe .
appendix ., .
arabic numerals .
Bible references ..
journal volume numbers ..
lines of poems ..
Arabic script ..
art, works of ., ..
articles:
cross-references .
journals ..
magazines ..
newspapers ..
online publications ..
references ., ..
type for titles .
asterisk general note to chapter .
author–date system citations .
author-typeset formats ., .
authors:
bibliography .
collaborating .
corrections ..,
nal copy design ..
indexing .
multiple .
name in text .
onli ne pu bl ic at ions . . , . . ,
.., .., ..
references to books .., ..
references to journals ..
responsibilities ..
INDEX
initial .
journal titles .
large ..
movements .
periods .
prehistoric eras .
quotations .
references .., ..
small .., ., ., .
subtitles .
titles of people .
titles of writings .
unpublished theses/dissertations
..
captions to illustrations ..
CD-ROM references ..
Celtic names ..
centuries .
small capitals .
chapter:
general note .
references ..
chapter titles:
references ..
roman type .
checking of typescript
nal version ..,
Chinese script ..
classical names ..
colons .., .
references .., .., ..
commas ., .
numbers .
quotation marks .
comments:
for printers ., .,
for typesetter ..
compound words .
compounds .
conjunctions ..
contents list .
copy preparation .
retained copy ..
revisions ..
typesetting .
author’s preface .
Bible:
references ..
titles of books .
bibliographical descriptions .
bibliographical details .
bibliographical references
abbreviations .
author–date system .
indexing .
bibliography ., .
explanatory note .
note limiting .
number of pages .
blogs ..
bold type ..
books:
alternative titles ..
cross-references .
online database ..
order of parts .
references .., ..
subdivisions ..
titles ., ., .
type for titles .
volume numbers .
braces .
brackets .
broadcasts ..
BS5261: Marks for Copy Preparation
and Proof Correction ()
capitals ..,
accented .
book titles .
dignities .
foreign titles .
hyphenated compounds .
published extract ..
references .., .
see also theses
ditto .
DOI .., ..
dollars .
double-spacing .., ..
drawings ..
DVD-ROM references ..
ebooks ..
email attachments ..
editions:
original .
references ., ..
editors:
abbreviation .
bibliography .
indexes .
instructions to typesetter ..
references ..
electronic publications ..
electronic submission ..
ellipses .
omissions within quotations .
-em dash .., .
em rule .., .
email ..
en rule .., .
encyclopedias references to .
endnotes .., .
abbreviations .
era citations .
essay titles .
references ..
exhibition titles .
expository material .
Facebook ..
facsimile reprint references .,
..
gures (numerical) .
typing ..
copyright .
quotations .
corrections:
marking ..
see also proof correction
correspondence:
private ..
criticism anthology .
cross-references .., .
currency .
Cyrillic alphabet .., ..
Cyrillic script roman numerals .
dashes .., ., ., .
databases:
online ..
dates ., .
journals ..
newspapers/magazines ..
online publications .., ..,
.., ..
decades .
dedication .
denite article
journal title ..
newspaper title ..
place names .., ..
desktop publishing (DTP) soware
..
diacritics .., .
see also accents
dictionaries ., ., .
biographical .
digital images ..
digital media references ..
Digital Object Identier ..,
..
dignities .
disks ..
references ..
dissertations:
annotation ..
headings .., ..
compounds .
punctuation .
Hebrew script ..
hyphens .., .., .
place names ..
illustrations ..
indexing .
list .
permission .
indenite article:
journal title ..
newspaper title ..
indents ..
quotations ., .
index .,
entries .
features .
page references .
sub-entries .
submission .
Internet publications .., ..,
.., .., ..
introduction .
italics/italic type ..,
foreign expressions .
foreign words .
journal titles ..
punctuation .
quotations .
stage directions .
titles ., .
Japanese script ..
journal titles ., ., .
abbreviations .., .
references .., ..
journals:
article references .., .., .
page numbers ..
gures in text ..
le transfer to printers ..
lms:
references ..
titles .
nal version ..
avoidance of over-design ..
checking ..,
revised ..
footnotes .., .
abbreviations .
references .
foreign expressions .
foreign language:
currency .
italics .
quotations/quotation marks .
roman numerals .
foreign-language characters ..
accents on capitals .
foreign names ..
place names .
Slavonic ..
foreign titles .
foreign words in italics .
foreword .
fonts ..
see also type size; typeface
full stop
abbreviations .
long quotations .
notes .
parentheses .
quotation marks .
quotations .
references .., ..
short quotations .
Greek alphabet ..
half-title .
hard copy ..
see also personal names; place
names
newspaper article references ..
non-alphabetic scripts ..
notes .., ., .
general to chapter .
limiting .
numbering .., ., .., ..,
..
position ., ..
references .
thesis .., ..
typescript .
unnumbered .
see also endnotes; footnotes
numbering:
notes .., .
pages .., ..
preliminary pages .
subdivisions ..
text .
numbers ., .
see also arabic numerals; roman
numerals
omissions from quotations .
online publications ..
articles ..
databases ..
references ..
order of parts of book .
ordinals ., .
roman numerals .
page numbering .., ..
page numbers:
checking
indexes .
journals ..
references .., ..
paperback reissues references .
paragraphs ..
publication date ..
volume numbers ..
justication .., ..
Koran .
Latin words .
learned society proceedings ..
legal case citation .
letters references to .
Library of Congress system ..
line division for quotations of verse
.
line ends:
checking
line spacing ..
double ..
literary works:
references ., ..
title abbreviations .
titles within article titles ..
magazine article references ..
manuscripts:
references ..
margins:
proof corrections
measurement .
e Modern Language Review ..
monarchs ..
roman numerals .
money .
Moslem see Muslim
movements .
Muhammad ..
multi-volume work references ..
musical composition titles .
Muslim ..
names
indexes .
references ..
prehistoric eras .
preliminary pages .
numbering .
roman numerals .
printers:
le transfer ..
marks for
professional qualications .
proof correction
marking ..
proof marks aer reading
proof-reading conventions ..,
prose quotations:
long .
omissions from .
from plays .
short .
publication details ., ..
date .., .., .., .
online publications .., ..,
.., .., ..
place .., .
publishers:
code specications ..
copyright .
name in references ..
punctuation
dates .
ellipses .
headings .
italics .
journal title abbreviations ..
long quotations .
marks .., ..
note reference numbers .
notes .
numbers .
parentheses .
quotation marks .
quotations ., ., ., .
references .., .., ..,
..
parentheses ., .
punctuation .
references ., ., .
roman .
volume numbers ..
periods .
permissions:
acknowledgements ..
quotations .
personal names .
extensions .
possessive ..
Slavonic ..
substitutes .
phonetic symbols ..
photographs ..
place names .
of publication in references ..
plates ..
plays:
acts ., ..
quotations .
references ..
plurals:
foreign currency .
weights and measures .
poems:
line numbers ..
long ..
online database ..
permission .
references ..
subdivisions .
titles .
see also verse
popes:
roman numerals ..
possessive use of .
postal abbreviations .
postal codes .
preface:
book .
abbreviated form ., .., .
abbreviations .
articles ..
articles in journals ..
author–date system .
Bible ..
books .., ..
capitalization .., ..
chapters ..
checking ..
digital media ..
dissertations .., .
editions .
electronic publications ..–
lms ..
forms .
indexing .
journals ..
later .
magazine articles ..
manuscripts ..
newspaper articles ..
notes .
numbers ..
online publications ..
page numbers .., ..
parentheses ., ., ., .
plays ..
poems ..
publication date .., ..,
.., .
publication place .., .
publishers ..
punctuation .., .., ..,
.., ..
quotation marks ..
recordings ..
simple .
in text .
thesis .., .
unpublished documents .
well-known works .
short quotations .
see also individual punctuation
marks
quotation marks ., ., .
double .
foreign language .
full stop .
long quotations .
poem titles .
punctuation .
references .., ..
song titles .
titles in books/journals ., .
titles within italicized titles .
unpublished theses/dissertations
..
quotations ., ., .
checking ..
copyright .
direct .
foreign language .
indents .
long ., .
mark to typesetter ., .
omissions .
plays .
prose ., ., ., .
punctuation ., ., ., .
within quotation .
short .
spelling ., ., .
verse ., ., ., .
radio ..
readers ..
proof marks
recordings references ..
referees ..
proof marks
reference works
references ., .
stage directions .
statistical works ., .
style preferred ..
style books/sheets ..
sub-editors ..
subdivisions ..
subheadings:
punctuation .
typographic treatment .
submission of copy .
on disk ..
email attachment ..
electronic ..
initial ..
subtitles .
tab characters ..
tables:
of numbers .
permission .
statistical .
Talmud .
television ..
text .
author’s name .
formatting ..
major subdivisions .
marked proof
minor subdivisions .
numbering .
references ., .
title page .
titles .
abbreviations ., .., .
alternative ..
within article titles of literary
works ..
books ., ., .., .
capitals ., .
chapter ., ..
descriptive .
essay ., ..
see also bibliographies; cross-
references; publication details
reprints references to ., ..
revisions .., .., ..
roman numerals .
acts of plays ..
Bible references ..
volume numbers ., ..
roman type:
quotations .
titles ., ., ..
round brackets .
running heads ..
checking
Russian names ..
saints ..
scripts ..
semicolons ..
series references ..
series titles ..
short story titles .
e Slavonic and East European
Review .., ..
Slavonic names ..
small capitals .., .
centuries .
era citations .
social media ..
Society of Indexers .
soware ..
song titles .
sources citation ., .
spacing see line spacing
special characters ..
spelling
preferred .
quotations ., ., .
square brackets .
ellipses .
journal year of publication ..
quotations .
universities:
American ..
usage
verse quotations:
long .
omissions from .
from plays .
short .
see also poems
volume numbers:
books .
journals ..
parentheses ..
references ..
roman ., ..
volumes publication dates ..
weights and measures .
word processors .
digital submission ..
le conversion ..
special character sets ..
words denitions .
World Wide Web ..
e Year’s Work in Modern
Language Studies .., ..
abbreviations .
exhibitions .
lms .
foreign language .
hyphenated compounds .
within italicized titles .
italics/italic type ., ., .
journal ., ., .., .., .,
.
musical composition .
numerical .
online publications .., ..,
.., .., ..
of people .
poems .
quotation marks ., ., ., .
references to books ..
roman type ., ., ..
series ..
short ., .
short story .
song .
typeface .
of writings .
translators references to ..
transliteration ..
Twitter ..
type size ..
typeface .., ..
serif ..
titles .
typescript .
checking ..,
notes .
see also nal version
typesetters .., ..
editor’s instructions ..
text formatting ..
typesetting by authors ., .
typing conventions ..
Universal Resource Locator (URL)
.., ..
