160
objective, and (4) whether, balancing the severity of the
measure’s effects on the rights of the persons to whom it
applies against the importance of the objective, to the
extent that the measure will contribute to its achievement,
the former outweighs the latter. The first three of these are
the criteria listed by Lord Clyde in De Freitas, and the
fourth reflects the additional observation made in Huang. I
have formulated the fourth criterion in greater detail than
Lord Sumption, but there is no difference of substance. In
essence, the question at step four is whether the impact of
the rights infringement is disproportionate to the likely
benefit of the impugned measure.
75. In relation to the third of these criteria, Dickson CJ
made clear in R v Edwards Books and Art Ltd [1986] 2
SCR 713, 781-782 that the limitation of the protected right
must be “one that it was reasonable for the legislature to
impose”, and that the courts were “not called upon to
substitute judicial opinions for legislative ones as to the
place at which to draw a precise line”. This approach is
unavoidable, if there is to be any real prospect of a
limitation on rights being justified: as Blackmun J once
observed, a judge would be unimaginative indeed if he
could not come up with something a little less drastic or a
little less restrictive in almost any situation, and thereby
enable himself to vote to strike legislation down (Illinois
Elections Bd v Socialist Workers Party (1979) 440 US 173,
188 189); especially, one might add, if he is unaware of
the relevant practicalities and indifferent to considerations
of cost. To allow the legislature a margin of appreciation is
also essential if a federal system such as that of Canada,
or a devolved system such as that of the United Kingdom,
is to work, since a strict application of a “least restrictive
means” test would allow only one legislative response to
an objective that involved limiting a protected right.
76. In relation to the fourth criterion, there is a meaningful
distinction to be drawn (as was explained by McLachlin CJ
in Alberta v Hutterian Brethren of Wilson Colony [2009] 2
SCR 567, para 76) between the question whether a
particular objective is in principle sufficiently important to
justify limiting a particular right (step one), and the
question whether, having determined that no less drastic