FlavorEnhancing Properties of Mushrooms in MeatBased Dishes in Which Sodium Has Been Reduced and Meat Has Been Partially Substituted with Mushrooms

S: Sensory & Food

Quality

Flavor-Enhancing Properties of Mushrooms in

Meat-Based Dishes in Which Sodium Has Been

Reduced and Meat Has Been Partially Substituted

with Mushrooms

A. Myrdal Miller, K. Mills, T. Wong, G. Drescher, S.M. Lee, C. Sirimuangmoon, S. Schaefer, S. Langstaff, B. Minor, and J.-X Guinard

Abstract: The effects of beef substitution with crimini or white mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) on the ﬂavor proﬁles

of carne asada and beef taco blends were measured with a descriptive analysis panel. Sensory mitigation of sodium

reduction through the incorporation of mushrooms was also investigated in the taco blends. The substitution of beef

with mushrooms in the carne asada did not alter the overall ﬂavor strength of the dish, but the incorporation of 50%

or 80% ground mushroom in the beef taco blend did enhance its overall ﬂavor as well as mushroom, veggie, onion,

garlic and ear thy ﬂavors, and umami and sweet tastes. Overall ﬂavor intensity of the 25% reduced-salt version of the 80%

mushroom taco blend matched that of the full-salt versions of the 100% and 50% beef formulations, thus indicating that

the substitution of 80% of the meat with mushrooms did mitigate the 25% sodium reduction in terms of the overall ﬂavor

impact of the dish, even if it did not quite compensate for the reduction in salty taste. This proof-of-concept study for

the Healthy Flavors Research Initiative indicates that because of their ﬂavor-enhancing umami principles, mushrooms

can be used as a healthy substitute for meat and a mitigating agent for sodium reduction in meat-based dishes without

loss of overall ﬂavor.

Keywords: culinary, ﬂavor proﬁle, mushrooms, sodium reduction, umami

Practical Application: In some meat-based dishes, meat can be substituted with mushrooms without compromising the

ﬂavor of the dishes while also improving their nutritional quality by reducing the amount of sodium, calories, saturated fat,

and cholesterol in them. This is because of the presence of unique and so-called “umami” ﬂavor-enhancing compounds

in mushrooms. This study provides the basis for the preparation of healthier alternatives to traditional meat-based dishes

through sodium reduction and substitution of meat with mushrooms without loss of overall ﬂavor intensity.

Introduction

The rapid. increases in obesity and chronic disease in the United

States are attributed largely to unhealthy dietary choices and pat-

terns. In response to these trends, the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for

Americans called, among other recommendations, for consumers

to “shift food intake patterns to a more plant-based diet.” Unfor-

tunately, evidence suggests that for many of the foods deemed by

nutrition experts to be healthful (that is, produce, whole grains,

nuts, seeds, legumes, and ﬁsh), consumer appeal is often lower

than other foods whose sensory appeal is related to high levels of

added sugar, salt, and fat. There is a clear need to devise culinary

strategies and sensory insights to improve the ﬂavor and consumer

appeal of health-promoting plant-based foods. Bridging the culi-

nary arts and the food, sensory, and consumer sciences, the goal of

the Healthy Flavors Research Initiative is to combine culinary

strategies and ﬂavor development techniques to make healthy,

MS 20140120 Submitted 1/22/2014, Accepted 5/5/2014. Authors Myrdal Miller,

Mills, Wong, Drescher, and Minor are with The Culinary Inst. of America at Greystone,

St. Helena, CA, USA. Authors Lee, Sirimuangmoon, Schaefer and Guinard are with

Dept. of Food Science and Technology, Univ. of California, Davis, CA, USA. Author

Langstaff is with Applied Sensory, LLC, Fairﬁeld, CA, USA. Author Minor is with

Mushroom Council, San Jos

e, CA, USA. Direct inquiries to author Guinard (E-mail:

jxguinard@ucdavis.edu).

nutritious, and affordable foods more ﬂavorful and appealing to

consumers.

The extent to which ﬂavor is compromised when sodium is re-

duced in food is well documented (Liem and others 2011). Sodium

chloride improves the sensory properties of foods by increasing

saltiness and by e nhancing some pleasant ﬂavors and reducing un-

pleasant ones (Breslin and Beauchamp 1997; Beauchamp and Stein

2008). High consumption of sodium, however, has been linked

to hypertension, cardiovascular disease and stroke, and sodium re-

duction in Western diets continues to be a public health priority

(Institute of Medicine 2010). It therefore becomes necessary to

develop alternative strategies to reduce sodium in foods with-

out compromising sensory properties or jeopardizing consumer

acceptance. One such strategy might be to draw from the ﬂavor-

enhancing properties of umami tastants to mitigate the sensory

effects of salt (and sodium) reduction. Indeed, Manabe and others

(2009) were successful in improving the palatability of salt-reduced

food using dried bonito stock, a food known for its characteristic

aromas and umami-tasting components.

Umami is the 5th basic taste after sweet, salty, bitter, and sour.

Derived from the Japanese word umami, meaning “delicious,”

umami is described as a savory, brothy, rich, or meaty taste sen-

sation. It is typically associated with the nonessential amino acids

glutamic acid and aspartic acid, and with 5



ribonucleotides such

C

2014 Institute of Food Technologists

R

doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.12549 Vol. 00, Nr. 0, 2014

Journal of Food Science S1

Further reproduction without permission is prohibited

S: Sensory & Food

Quality

Flavor-enhancing properties of mushrooms . . .

Table 1–Taco blend recipe codiﬁcation.

Sample Salt Beef Mushroom Beef

ID reduction substitution content content

100B None 0% (none) 0% 100%

100B/25LS 25% 0% (none) 0% 100%

50M50B None 50% 50% 50%

50M50B/25LS 25% 50% 50% 50%

80M20B None 80% 80% 20%

80M20M/25LS 25% 80% 80% 20%

Table 2–Carne asada recipe codiﬁcation.

Sample ID Steak substitution Mushroom content Steak content

Sample Steak Mushroom Steak

100STEAK 0% (none) 0% (none) 100%

50ST/50MR 50% 50% 50%

as 5



-IMP and 5



-GMP, all known to act synergistically in the

expression of umami taste (Yamagushi and others 1971; Yama-

gushi 1979). To chefs and foodies, umami is synonymous with a

satisfying sense of deep, complete ﬂavor, balancing savory notes,

and full-bodied taste with distinctive qualities of aroma and mouth-

feel. These desirable sensory qualities are well documented in the

food science literature as well (Fuke and Shimizu 1993; Fuke and

Ueda 1996; Manabe and others 2009; Hong and other s 2012;

Zhang and others 2013).

Mushrooms are very low in sodium (5 mg/100 g raw white,

USDA National Nutrient Database 2011) and known for their

umami taste properties due to the presence of glutamic and aspar-

tic acids, and 5



-ribonucleotides (Yang and others 2001; Liu and

others 2005; Cheung 2010). A comprehensive review of umami

principles in mushrooms was published recently by Zhang and

others (2013). The authors of the review document how the pres-

ence of umami principles and their quantities are inﬂuenced by

several factors, including species, maturity stage, part of mush-

room (pileus and stipe), quality grade, storage type, and processing

method. Yet, there is no study documenting the effects of the

cooking method on the umami and other sensory properties of

mushrooms, except in the context of a complex food such as soup

(Li and others 2011). Chefs believe that when cooked properly,

mushrooms can take on the texture and consistency of meat. The

objective of the proof-of-concept study presented herein was to

test the hypothesis that because of their ﬂavor-enhancing umami

properties, mushrooms can be used as a healthy substitute for meat

and a mitigating agent for sodium reduction in meat-based dishes

without loss of overall ﬂavor or signiﬁcant alteration of the ﬂavor

proﬁles of the dishes.

There is evidence for the potential of using mushroom deriva-

tives to enhance the ﬂavor of foods. In a study of the effect of

added shitake mushroom powder on perception and acceptance

of pork patties with Korean and U.S. consumers, Chun and oth-

ers (2005) found that addition of mushroom powder to patties

increased acceptance among U.S. consumers, supposedly because

it increased texture acceptance and juiciness. Dermiki and others

(2013a) further examined the application of shiitake mushrooms as

ﬂavor enhancers in cooked minced meat, but this time as extracts.

The incorporation of a 70 °C shiitake extract led to signiﬁcantly

higher levels of 5



-ribonucleotides in the cooked meat, but that did

not result in a higher umami perception or enhanced ﬂavor overall.

The ﬁrst objective of this research was to test the hypothesis

that because of their ﬂavor-enhancing umami properties, mush-

rooms, when substituted for meat, can boost the ﬂavor of meat-

based dishes; the 2nd objective was to determine if the way the

mushrooms were incorporated into a dish (that is, side-by-side

Table 3–Sensory attributes for cooked mushrooms.

Attribute Deﬁnition

Overall aroma Intensity of all aroma attributes taken together

Overall ﬂavor Intensity of all ﬂavor by mouth attributes taken t ogether

Raw mushroom Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with raw mushroom

Moss/wet soil Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with moss or wet soil

Earthy Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with dry mud or dirt

Nutty Aromatic associated with nuts or nut meats; character associated with Maillard reaction products, starches, and sugars

Buttery Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with butter

Yeasty Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with yeast and fermented products such as bread or beer

Rancid/stale oil Aroma or ﬂavor associated with rancid oil; gives a mouth-coating sensation and/or a bitterness perceived on the back of the

tongue

Smoky Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with any type of smoke; may be phenolic or tar-like

Caramelized Browned character associated with Maillard reaction products, starches, and sugars

Burnt/charred Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with heated, scorched, or blackened substances

Toasted/roasted Browned character of Maillard reaction products, starches and sugars; aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with roasted nuts

and coffee beans

Cardboard/paper Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with slightly oxidized fats, reminiscent of wet cardboard

Salty Basic taste on tongue stimulated by sodium chloride

Umami Taste on tongue produced by substances such as monosodium glutamate (MSG) in solution; a meaty, savory, or mouth-ﬁlling

sensation

Bitter Basic taste on tongue stimulated by solutions of caffeine, quinine, and other alkaloids

Sour Basic taste on tongue stimulated by acids

Sweet Basic taste on tongue stimulated by sugars and high potency sweeteners

Astringent Puckering and palate drying sensation

Oily/greasy Ease with which tongue, sample, and roof of mouth glide relative to each other due to the oil and/or grease present in the sample

Moist/juicy Inherent moistness of mass

Chewy Requiring much chewing

Crispy/crunchy Sound modiﬁer, integrated term (hard, dense, and sound)

Soft-hard Resistance to strain when force applied

Rubbery/spongy Returns to original shape, tendency to act like a rubber band after manipulation

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Table 4–Sensory attributes for taco blend.

Attribute Deﬁnition

Overall aroma Intensity of all aroma attributes taken together

Overall ﬂavor Intensity of all ﬂavor by mouth attributes taken together

Meaty Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with cooked meat

Mushroom Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with mushrooms

Veggie Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with vegetables

Onion Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with onion

Garlic Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with garlic

Black pepper Characteristic sharp, penetrating aroma and hot, b iting ﬂavor

Spicy (cumin,

chili, and

paprika)

Aroma and ﬂavor characteristics associated with the spices cumin, chili pepper, and paprika

Rancid/stale oil Aroma or ﬂavor associated with rancid oil; gives a mouth-coating sensation and/or a bitterness perceived on the back of the

tongue

Smoky Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with any type of smoke; may be phenolic or tar-like

Earthy Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with dry mud, dirt, or damp soil

Burnt Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with heated, scorched, or blackened substances

Pungent—spicy

hot

Sharp trigeminal sensation perceived in the nasal passage and oral cavity

Salty Basic taste on tongue stimulated by sodium chloride

Umami Taste on tongue produced by substances such as MSG in solution; a meaty, savory, or mouth-ﬁlling sensation

Sweet Basic taste on tongue stimulated by sugars and high potency sweeteners

Acidic Basic taste on tongue stimulated by acids

Astringent Puckering and palate drying sensation

Oily/greasy Ease with which tongue, sample, and roof of mouth glide relative to each other due to the oil and/or grease present in the

sample

Moisture Inherent moistness of mass

Chewy/tough Requiring much chewing

Crispy/crunchy Sound modiﬁer, integrated term (hard, dense, and sound)

Firmness Resistance to deformation

Rubbery/spongy Returns to original shape, tendency to act like a rubber band after manipulation

Table 5–Sensory attributes for carne asada.

Attribute Deﬁnition

Overall aroma Intensity of all aroma attributes taken together

Overall ﬂavor Intensity of all ﬂavor by mouth attributes taken together

Meaty Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with cooked meat

Mushroom Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with mushrooms

Veggie Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with vegetables

Onion Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with onion

Black pepper Characteristic sharp, penetrating aroma and hot, b iting ﬂavor

Spicy (cumin,

chili, and

paprika)

Aroma and ﬂavor characteristics associated with the spices cumin, chili pepper, and paprika

Rancid oil Aroma or ﬂavor associated with rancid oil; gives a mouth-coating sensation and/or a bitterness perceived on the back of the

tongue

Smoky Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with any type of smoke; may be phenolic or tar-like

Earthy Aroma and ﬂavor characteristic associated with dry mud, dirt, or damp soil

Salty Basic taste on tongue stimulated by sodium chloride

Umami Taste on tongue produced by substances such as MSG in solution; a meaty, savory, or mouth-ﬁlling sensation

Sweet Basic taste on tongue stimulated by sugars and high potency sweeteners

Acidic Basic taste on tongue stimulated by acids

Astringent Puckering and palate drying sensation

Oily/greasy Ease with which tongue, sample, and roof of mouth glide relative to each other due to the oil and/or grease present in the

sample

Moisture Inherent moistness of mass

Chewy/tough Requiring much chewing

Crispy/crunchy Sound modiﬁer, integrated term (hard, dense, and sound)

Firmness Resistance to deformation

Rubbery/spongy Returns to original shape, tendency to act like a rubber band after manipulation

in a carne asada recipe, or ground and mixed with the meat in

a taco blend) would affect their ﬂavor-enhancement capabilities;

the 3rd objective was to examine the extent to which mushrooms

can make up the ﬂavor that is lost upon sodium reduction in

such dishes; and the 4th objective was to measure the effect of

the mushroom cooking technique on the sensory proﬁle of the

mushrooms.

Materials and Methods

Formulation and bench testing of the recipes

The research began with chef-instructors from The Culinary

Inst. of America (CIA) developing recipes for the dishes to be

tested. Representatives from the Mushroom Council, the CIA,

and UC Davis then gathered to taste the samples, which included

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Flavor-enhancing properties of mushrooms . . .

the following items: steamed white mushrooms (tossed in canola

oil); saut

eed white mushrooms (cooked in canola oil); seared white

mushrooms (cooked in canola oil); oven-roasted white mush-

rooms (cooked in canola oil); 100% ground beef taco blend; 50%

white mushroom/50% ground beef taco blend; 80% white mush-

room/20% ground beef taco blend; 100% steak carne asada for

tacos; and 50% portabella mushroom/50% steak carne asada.

We discussed the best way to cook mushrooms for each recipe.

Roasting seemed to create meatier texture and more intense ﬂa-

vor but also appeared to result in the greatest moisture loss (up

to 70%, as determined in preliminary testing), which affects not

only sensory properties but also food cost. Saut

eing and searing

resulted in the same moisture loss (38%). Steaming resulted in the

least amount of moisture loss (32%) but created the least intense

ﬂavor. While CIA chef-instructors preferred the intense meat ﬂa-

vor and texture developed through roasting, they recommended

saut

eing the mushrooms for both the taco blend and carne asada

since it is a quicker cooking method (compared to roasting) that

can be done in large batches in volume foodservice operations.

Representatives from the Mushroom Council supported this rec-

ommendation due to lower moisture losses with this cooking

method, losses that would impact food costs for the ﬁnal dish, an

important consideration for volume foodservice operations.

We also discussed the best way to cut the mushrooms, and

consensus was reached that in the taco blend, the mushrooms

should be quartered, cooked, and then ground to resemble the

grind of the ground beef. The group agreed that the mushrooms

for carne asada should be diced the same way the steak is diced.

This distinction allowed us to compare the respective effects of the

mushrooms, side-by-side or mixed within, on the ﬂavor appeal of

each dish.

We next focused on the type of mushroom that should be used

for each application. White mushrooms were selected for the taco

blend due to cost. While initial testing on the carne asada recipe

was done with portobello mushrooms, CIA chefs recommended

using crimini mushrooms due to their size, density, ﬂavor, and

perceived value. Carne asada is a menu item that uses steak and

therefore has higher food costs and higher perceived value for

consumers.

The group also determined a relevant and optimal sodium re-

duction strategy. Based on existing research that shows that few

consumers can detect the ﬁrst 20% reduction in sodium (Rodgers

and Neal 1999; Bolhuis and other s 2011), and on bench testing of

various salt-reduced versions of the recipes as well as the potential

umami ﬂavor beneﬁts of mushrooms, we elected to go with a 25%

sodium reduction for the reduced sodium versions of the dishes.

Mushroom preparations and taco blend and carne asada

recipes

A set of white mushrooms was prepared using 4 different cook-

ing methods—searing, saut

eing, steaming, and roasting—and eval-

uated by a descriptive analysis panel.

Chef-instructors from the CIA developed the 8 recipes that were

tested in this study. Recipes were developed using g ram weights for

all raw ingredients, and cooked weights were also determined in

grams to ensure accurate nutrition analysis, which was conducted

by a CIA Registered Dietitian using Nutritionist Pro software

(Axxya Systems, Version 4.7.0). The culinary protocol for this

study, the recipes, and complete nutrition information for the

recipes is available from the authors upon request.

A total of 6 beef taco blend recipes differing in added salt

and meat/mushroom ratios and 2 carne asada recipes differing

in meat/mushroom ratios were formulated as shown in Table 1

and 2. The recipes were prepared, cooled, vacuum sealed in rether-

malization bags, and then frozen at the CIA. On testing days, the

Figure 1–Sensory proﬁles of mushrooms

cooked according to 4 methods—roasted,

saut

eed, seared, or steamed. Only

attributes for which signiﬁcant differences

were found among the 4 preparations are

included in the plot (P < 0.05).

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samples were transported to UC Davis, warmed in water baths

to 160°F, and portioned for testing at the sensory facilities of the

Robert Mondavi Inst. for Wine and Food Science. Thirty gram

portions of all samples were used for this study.

Descriptive analysis

The intensity of the sensory attributes of the mushroom prepa-

rations, taco blends, and carne asada recipes was evaluated in trip-

licate by a trained panel of 13 judges (7 male, 6 female) using

the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis method (Stone and others

2012). Members of the panel were recruited from students and staff

at the Univ. of California, Davis, and were trained over several ses-

sions (6 h in total). All had participated in other descriptive panels.

Using mushroom preparations, taco blend, and carne asada

recipes prepared by CIA chefs, the panel developed a descrip-

tive language of 22 to 26 sensory attributes each for the 3 types

of products, along with deﬁnitions of the attributes (Table 3 to 5).

The panel then trained over several sessions to practice rating the

intensity of the attributes in each proﬁle. During those (group)

training sessions, panelists shared their ratings for the various at-

tributes as a means of ensuring concept alignment across the panel.

Those ratings were discussed and in those instances where major

differences of opinion existed, panelists were encouraged to retaste

until a consensus was reached (Stone and others 2012).

A randomized complete block design was used for each training

session and the formal sessions. The intensity of each attribute

was evaluated across the products on an unstructured, 10-cm line

scale in the order in which the attributes are listed in Table 3,

4, and 5. All products were served in 2 oz plastic portion cups.

Approximately 1 oz of each product (mushrooms, carne asada—

beef, mushrooms, and seasonings, or beef taco blend—ground

beef, mushrooms, vegetables, and seasonings) was placed into each

portion cup and covered with a plastic lid. The portions cups

were then placed in a tiered rice steamer to keep them warm.

Approximately 5 min prior to the evaluation, the samples were

removed from the steamer and placed onto individual serving

trays. Serving temperature ranged from 50 to 60 °C. The tests

Figure 2–Spider web plot showing the mean intensities of the sensory

attributes in the carne asada. Only attributes that differed signiﬁcantly

between the 2 recipes are shown (P < 0.05).

were conducted in isolated booths illuminated with incandescent

lighting. Judges rinsed between samples with ﬁltered drinking

water and all samples were expectorated. All instructions, scale

presentations, and data collection were carried out using the FIZZ

software (Biosyst

emes, Couternon, France).

The ﬁnal descriptive analyses of the mushroom preparations,

taco blends, and carne asada recipes were carried out in the Sensory

Laboratory of the Mondavi Inst. for Wine and Food Science at

UC Davis.

Data analysis

The descriptive analysis ratings were analyzed using analysis of

variance (ANOVA) with the main effects of “judge,” “sample,”

“replication,” and their 2-way interactions. It should be noted

that the “sample” F-ratio was reanalyzed in a pseudomixed model

ANOVA using the “judge” by “sample” interaction as the er-

ror term for any attribute with a signiﬁcant “judge” by “sample”

interaction, as is customary when judges are considered a ﬁxed ef-

fect (O’Mahony 1986). When signiﬁcant differences were found,

means were compared using Fisher’s LSD (least signiﬁcant dif-

ference). Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the

mean intensity ratings of the 6 beef taco blend samples to sort

out the relationships among the sensory attributes and among the

products. PCA was not performed for carne asada samples due to

the small number of samples (that is, 2) in the design.

All the statistical analyses were performed using SAS version 9.3

for Windows (SAS Inst. Inc., N.C., U.S.A.) and XLSTAT 2012

for Windows (Addinsoft, Paris, France).

Results and Discussion

Effect of cooking method on mushroom sensory quality

The method used to cook the mushrooms had a signiﬁcant

effect on their sensory proﬁle (Figure 1, Table 6). Seared mush-

rooms clearly had more intense toasted/roasted, burnt/charred,

and smoky ﬂavors, and had the strongest overall aroma. Roasted

mushrooms were higher in sweet, salty, and umami tastes, and

in caramelized, nutty, and buttery ﬂavors. Steamed mushrooms

displayed higher cardboard/paper and raw mushroom ﬂavors. In

terms of moisture, saut

eed and steamed mushrooms had higher

perceived moisture than roasted and seared ones.

With the highest overall aroma and overall ﬂavor, seared mush-

rooms seem to have the highest potential for ﬂavor enhancement

when mushrooms are used as a “healthy ﬂavor” principle. But

with the highest umami intensity, roasted mushroom should be a

good alternative as well.

There is indirect evidence in the literature that the way mush-

rooms are prepared or cooked before incorporation into a food

or beverage has a signiﬁcant effect on how they contribute to

the ﬂavor proﬁle. Dermiki and others (2013a) showed that the

temperature at which a shiitake mushroom extract was prepared

before addition to minced meat (22 compared with 70 °C) had

a signiﬁcant effect on some of the attributes in the proﬁle, and

that the extraction of 5



-ribonucleotides was higher at the higher

temperature. Li and others (2011) showed that the levels of free

amino acids and 5



-nucleotides in a mushroom soup were higher

in a microwaved soup than in a boiled or autoclaved soup, but that

more aroma-active volatile compounds were found in the boiled

soup. To our knowledge, however, there has not been any study

of the effect of the cooking method on the ﬂavor of mushrooms,

and this study represents the ﬁrst attempt at documenting how the

cooking method affects the sensory proﬁle of the mushrooms.

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Flavor-enhancing properties of mushrooms . . .

Figure 3–Spider web plots showing the mean

intensities of the sensory attributes in the 6

beef taco mixes (A), and averaged by meat

substitution level (B), and by sodium reduction

level (C). Only attributes for which the samples

were signiﬁcantly different are shown in

Figure 2(A). In Figure 2 and; 2(C),

∗

∗∗

superscripts indicate that the attribute

differed signiﬁcantly among the samples at

P < 0.05 or P < 0.01, respectively.

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Table 6–ANOVA F-ratios of each source of variation for 26 attributes rated by the descriptive analysis panel for 4 mushroom

preparations.

Attribute Rep Judge Sample Rep

∗

Judge Rep

∗

Sample Judge

∗

Sample Sample (e = Judge

∗

Sample)

Overall aroma 2.38 17.95 40.49 1.38 0.97 3.54 11.43

Overall ﬂavor 1.30 16.86 36.49 1.42 0.79 1.18 30.99

Raw mushroom 0.84 16.28 32.86 0.65 0.84 2.86 11.48

Moss/wet soil 1.14 14.04 1.12 1.78 1.96 2.38 0.47

Earthy 0.52 26.30 0.12 1.01 1.90 1.33 0.09

Nutty 2.09 24.60 11.96 0.81 0.94 1.45 8.25

Buttery 0.47 49.16 13.60 0.83 0.74 2.03 6.70

Yeasty 0.71 97.75 5.50 2.03 1.21 3.99 1.38

Rancid/stale oil 2.98 121.05 0.67 1.85 2.49 4.30 0.16

Smoky 2.31 10.08 94.74 1.27 2.52 3.63 26.13

Caramelized 4.09 19.70 34.63 0.82 1.30 2.54 13.66

Burnt/charred 1.98 16.76 117.01 0.81 0.60 4.47 26.16

Toasted/roasted 0.39 18.98 83.77 1.02 0.39 3.39 24.71

Cardboard/paper 1.18 38.63 10.52 0.80 0.70 2.35 4.49

Salty 3.19 21.55 30.30 2.26 0.91 2.31 13.11

Umami 0.31 9.93 14.99 2.16 0.40 1.94 7.73

Bitter 0.13 51.29 25.66 0.73 0.98 7.16 3.59

Sour 1.08 29.15 1.76 1.04 1.86 1.51 1.16

Sweet 2.55

69.95 18.01 1.53 1.16 2.64 6.81

Astringent 0.78 40.54 0.45 1.96 1.77 1.66 0.27

Oily/greasy 2.05 13.68 1.51 1.03 0.78 1.06 1.42

Moisture 0.02 9.84 7.13 2.01 0.93 1.76 4.04

Chewy 2.82 25.01 0.71 1.03 0.76 1.27 0.56

Crispy/crunchy 1.66 50.02 2.02 1.48 1.34 1.12 1.80

Firmness 2.17 20.59 1.87 1.80 1.44 1.58 1.18

Rubbery/spongy 6.12 19.31 0.74 1.44 0.88 0.75 0.99

Note: Signiﬁcance at P < 0.05 is shown in bold text. The attributes in italics were ones that showed a signiﬁcant difference among the samples.

Table 7–ANOVA F-ratios of each source of variation for 22 attributes rated by the descriptive analysis panel for 2 carne asada

recipes.

Rep

∗

Rep

∗

Judge

∗

Sample

Attribute Rep Judge Sample Judge Sample Sample (e = Judge

∗

Sample)

Overall aroma 8.21 10.44 16.82 1.62 3.49 5.14 3.27

Overall ﬂavor 6.18 6.75 0.51 0.77 2.00 5.64 0.09

Meaty 3.76 4.55 41.51 1.00 3.65 2.61 15.91

Mushroom 0.33 11.31 324.54 1.42 1.75 4.05 80.21

Vegy 0.13 22.99 69.77 4.02 5.28 7.21 9.68

Onion 1.27 16.21 9.92 1.66 0.87 1.97 5.03

Black pepper 2.09 18.95 0.04 1.77 2.08 2.39 0.02

Spicy (cumin, chili, and paprika) 2.89 56.08 2.25 2.02 0.62 0.96 2.34

Rancid oil 0.50 126.30 6.98 4.57 0.98 1.97 3.54

Smoky 6.71 43.93 50.78 5.13 1.32 3.63 13.97

Earthy 2.11 14.74 42.11 1.30 0.72 5.64 7.47

Salty 1.06 10.37 5.23 1.38 1.75 1.09 4.78

Umami 2.26 18.82 0.11 0.94 0.42 1.91 0.06

Sweet 0.26 46.82 0.08 1.91 3.45 4.06 0.02

Acidic 6.15 49.12 22.99 2.72 0.37 6.55 3.51

Astringent 1.61 22.52 1.65 2.00 3.29 2.38 0.69

Oily/greasy 2.40 14.58 27.18 2.74 0.76 3.40 7.99

Moisture 0.41 4.37 25.98 1.73 1.10 1.62 15.99

Chewy/tough 4.75 7.00 25.71 2.18 0.89 2.77 9.29

Crispy/crunchy 3.30 70.41 27.90 4.59 1.91 10.15 2.75

Firmness 0.95 4.37 22.31 1.45 1.09 1.33 16.72

Rubbery/spongy 4.38 10.88 3.65 1.71 0.14 4.76 0.77

Note: Signiﬁcance at P < 0.05 is shown as bold text. The attributes in italics were ones that showed a signiﬁcant difference among the samples.

As mentioned above, we elected to saut

e the mushrooms for use

in the carne asada and taco blend recipes because it is quicker, can

easily be done in large batches, and results in lower moisture loss,

which has a positive impact on food cost when combining cooked

mushrooms with cooked ground beef.

Effect of partial substitution of meat with mushroom on

the ﬂavor of a carne asada dish

In this part of the research, we found that substituting 50% of the

steak with mushrooms, side-by-side in a carne asada recipe resulted

in signiﬁcantly higher mushroom, onion, veggie, earthy, salty,

and rancid/stale oil ﬂavors, oily/g reasy mouthfeel and moisture

(P < 0.05 or lower) (Figure 2, Table 7). The 100% steak recipe,

on the other hand, had signiﬁcantly higher meaty and smoky ﬂa-

vors, and ﬁrm and chewy/tough texture (Figure 2). There was no

signiﬁcant difference in the overall ﬂavor strength of the recipes,

however, as the overall aroma and overall ﬂavor attributes mea-

sured by the panel did not differ between the 2 recipes. This could

be because the 2 main ingredients, steak and mushrooms, were

present s ide-by-side in the dish, thus limiting the potential for

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Flavor-enhancing properties of mushrooms . . .

Table 8–ANOVA F-ratios of each source of variation for 25 attributes rated by the descriptive analysis panel for 6 beef taco mix recipes.

Rep

∗

Rep

∗

Jud

∗

Sample

Attribute Replication Judge Sample Judge Sample Sample (e = Judge

∗

Sample) Meat Na Meat Na

Overall aroma 4.00 16.95 1.77 1.69 0.78 0.93 1.89

Overall ﬂavor 4.36 19.95 6.99 1.10 1.23 1.72 4.07 8.01 17.28 0.82

Meaty 1.19 20.47 45.98 2.02 1.03 1.64 27.98 113.52 0.51 1.17

Mushroom 0.76 17.13 76.72 1.57 0.82 1.62 47.26 187.60 1.14 3.62

Vegy 1.98 30.95 24.46 2.29 0.56 1.89 12.94 59.95 1.45 0.48

Onion 1.88 19.06 3.84 1.37 0.47 1.08 3.55 9.08 0.93 0.04

Garlic 5.52 45.70 3.50 1.83 0.71 0.92 3.79 6.41 4.58 0.04

Black pepper 2.27 41.41 1.62 2.01 0.75 1.01 1.60

Spicy (cumin, chili, and papr ika) 1.87 55.63 6.56 1.96 0.89 1.43 4.58 10.56 10.47 0.59

Rancid/stale oil 4.44 90.37 0.24 1.81 1.29 0.65 0.37

Smoky 0.27 28.52 1.71 2.17 0.76 1.27 1.35

Earthy 1.37 41.78 28.40 2.60 1.03 1.86 15.25 69.19 1.69 0.96

Burnt 3.74 40.89 5.32 1.48 1.05 2.11 2.52 10.96 2.16 1.25

Pungent—spicy hot 3.07 57.89 2.63 0.94 0.83 1.21 2.17 5.01 0.01 1.56

Salty 5.40 38.01 12.53 1.27 1.39 1.63 7.67 0.53 61.19 0.19

Umami

0.11 28.28 12.03 1.61 0.65 3.10 3.88 26.30 6.72 0.42

Sweet 0.92 73.02 9.72 0.74 0.86 1.99 4.90 18.45 3.39 4.16

Acidic 0.85 58.73 0.64 1.65 0.82 1.29 0.50

Astringent 0.11 38.18 0.53 1.16 0.71 0.99 0.54

Oily/greasy 4.13 14.26 3.63 1.53 1.00 1.60 2.27

Moisture 3.10 5.59 56.08 2.49 0.48 1.91 29.38 138.04 0.05 2.13

Chewy/tough 0.12 16.06 45.98 1.28 1.01 3.34 13.76 114.56 0.60 0.08

Crispy/crunchy 3.90 68.83 0.77 2.66 1.60 1.59 0.49

Firmness 5.30 26.15 79.28 3.18 2.27 3.63 21.83 192.93 9.36 0.59

Rubbery/spongy 0.37 22.30 6.36 1.62 1.10 2.99 2.13

Note: Signiﬁcance at P < 0.05 is shown as bold text. The attributes in italics were ones that showed a signiﬁcant difference among the samples.

S8 Journal of Food Science

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Flavor-enhancing properties of mushrooms . . .

Figure 4–Principal component analysis of the matrix of mean attribute ratings across beef taco mixes, showing the attributes (top ﬁgure) and the

samples (bottom ﬁgure) in the biplot of principal components 1 and 2.

ﬂavor enhancement by the umami principles in the mushrooms.

Based on the ﬂavor and texture proﬁles we observed for the 4

mushrooms preparations, one could also speculate that had the

mushrooms being seared or roasted instead of saut

eed, the texture

of the 50% beef and 50% mushroom recipe would have been closer

to that of the 100% beef carne asada.

Effect of partial substitution of meat with mushroom on

the ﬂavor of a beef taco blend

Having the mushrooms incorporated as small, ground pieces

into a beef taco blend did enhance the ﬂavor of the dish. Fig-

ure 3(A) and 3(B) and Table 8 show how the recipes with 50%

or 80% of the meat substituted with mushrooms did have a sig-

niﬁcantly higher overall ﬂavor than those with 100% beef (P <

0.05). As expected, they also had higher intensities of mushroom

and veggie ﬂavors, as well as umami taste. But the overall ﬂavor

enhancement of the mushrooms was further expressed as increases

in onion, garlic, earthy, and sweet ﬂavors.

This ﬂavor enhancement through the substitution of meat with

mushrooms in the taco blend is conﬁrmed in the biplot of the

PCA of the sensory attribute ratings across the 6 formulations

(Figure 4). There is a clear separation of the formulations along

the ﬁrst principal component as a function of meat/mushroom

content, with the 100% beef samples found on the left side of

PC1, and associated with meat and burnt ﬂavors, whereas those

formulations with 80% mushrooms are found on the right side

of PC1, and are associated with overall ﬂavor, thus conﬁrming

ﬂavor enhancement, but more speciﬁcally with garlic, onion,

veggie, earthy ﬂavors, and, of course, umami and mushroom

ﬂavors.

These ﬂavor-enhancing properties of mushrooms in meat-based

products or dishes had not been demonstrated before. In a study

of shiitake mushroom powder added to pork patties by Chun and

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S: Sensory & Food

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Flavor-enhancing properties of mushrooms . . .

others (2005), there was no evidence of ﬂavor enhancement by

the mushroom powder, as the patties did not differ in meaty ﬂavor

intensity. Those patties with mushroom powder in them did have

a higher mushroom ﬂavor. Only 3 sensory attributes—juiciness,

mushroom ﬂavor, and meaty ﬂavor—were rated in that study,

however, and by consumers, not trained panelists. Similarly, and

in another study, the incorporation of a 70 °C shiitake mushroom

extract led to signiﬁcantly higher levels of 5



-ribonucleotides in

cooked minced meat, but not in a higher umami perception or

enhanced ﬂavor overall (Dermiki and others 2013a). In the sen-

sory proﬁling of the meat samples, only 1 of the 40 attributes

in the proﬁle—bitter taste—increased signiﬁcantly as a result of

the extract incorporation. Other attributes—baked smell, tomato

pur

ee smell, sweet smell, and salty aftertaste—actually decreased

compared to a control or meat with added MSG. These results

suggest that the mushroom extracts did not enhance the ﬂavor of

the minced meat signiﬁcantly. This was surprising given that the

authors measured increased amounts of 5



-ribonucleotides in the

meat with added shiitake extract.

Mitigation of sodium reduction by substitution with

mushrooms

When the sensory attribute ratings of the taco blends were aver-

aged by salt leve l (Figure 3C), the full-salt formulations displayed

signiﬁcantly higher intensities of saltiness, as well as overall ﬂavor,

umami, garlic, and spicy ﬂavors (P < 0.05 or lower).

The overall ﬂavor intensity of the reduced-salt version of the

80% mushroom taco blend matched that of the full-salt versions

of the 100% beef and 50% beef formulations (Figure 3A), thus in-

dicating that the substitution of 80% of the meat with mushrooms

did mitigate the 25% sodium reduction in terms of the overall

ﬂavor impact of the dish, even if it did not compensate for the

reduction in salty taste.

There are several ways in which the substitution of meat with

mushrooms could have enhanced overall ﬂavor or mitigated salt

reduction, through ﬂavor enhancement by umami compounds in

the mushrooms, or through enhanced moistness or juiciness from

the mushrooms’ moisture. Indeed, the ﬂavor-enhancing properties

of mushrooms through their umami principles have been docu-

mented (Dermiki and others 2013a, 2013b); and a recent report

suggests that juiciness enhances the salt perception of meat prod-

ucts, presumably by affecting ﬂ avor release (Stieger 2011).

Conclusions

In addition to improving the nutritional properties of a meat-

based dish such as a beef taco blend, the substitution of 50% or

even 80% of the beef with ground white mushrooms can enhance

the overall ﬂavor of a beef taco blend and even mitigate some of the

loss of ﬂavor from a 25% sodium reduction, without dramatically

altering the ﬂavor proﬁle of the dish.

This study also served as a demonstration of the effect of the

cooking method on the ﬂavor proﬁle of white mushrooms. With

the highest overall aroma and overall ﬂavor, seared mushrooms

seem to have the highest potential for ﬂavor enhancement when

mushrooms are used as a “healthy ﬂavor” principle. But with

the highest umami intensity, roasted mushroom should be a good

alternative as well.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by a grant from the Mushroom

Council.

Author Contributions

Study design—Myrdal Miller, Wong

Drescher, Langstaff,

Minor, and Guinard. Data collection and analysis—all au-

thors. Manuscript writing—Myrdal Miller, Minor, and Guinard.

Manuscript revision—Guinard.

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