THE EFFECTS OF ENROLLMENT IN REMEDIAL CLASSES ON STUDENTS’ HIGH

SCHOOL GRADUATION RATES

by

Amy Paulson Bennett

Liberty University

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

THE EFFECTS OF ENROLLMENT IN REMEDIAL CLASSES ON STUDENTS’ HIGH

SCHOOL GRADUATION RATES

by

Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA

2019

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to determine the effects on high school graduation rates of students

who are placed in remedial and non-remedial classes while controlling for the students’

attendance rates. The importance of this study is to identify indicators which can positively or

negatively affect high school graduation rates. The results may provide information to improve

the historical low high school graduation rates. It is a quantitative study using a causal

panhandle of Florida. 00 students will be sampled, with 00 female students and 00 male students.

Two of the schools are rural and two are suburban. The data collection retrieved will identify

each student’s attendance rates, placement in remedial courses or not placed in remedial courses,

and whether they graduated from high school in four years or did not, and this is from the

student’s 9

th

grade year through their 12

th

grade year.

Keywords: high school graduation rates, at risk students, dropout prevention, attendance

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my Lord and savior, Jesus Christ, my husband Bobby,

and my children, Taylor, Brittany, Brooke, and Abigail. Throughout this long and arduous

journey you have all diligently supported and prayed for me. To my husband, Bobby I could not

have chosen a better partner to travel this doctoral journey with! Completing a doctoral degree

together with one another has been a blessing. You have been my rock and my encourager

grateful for your unending grace! “Blessed is the man who remains steadfast under trial, for

when he has stood the test he will receive the crown of life, which God has promised to those

who love him.” James 1:12 (English Standard Version).

Acknowledgments

I would first like to acknowledge my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, for showing me an

unending amount of grace to complete this arduous journey. All good things come from Him and

Him alone. My husband, Bobby, has been my greatest encourager through this entire process. As

we always reference this scripture when we banter with one another, “As iron sharpens iron, so

one person sharpens another” Proverbs 27:17 NIV. Thank you for sharpening me every day. To

my father, Dr. Gunnar Paulson, thank you for teaching me through example how important

education is by attaining your doctorate. To my mother, Cindy Paulson, a retired educator, thank

you for instilling in me the love for education at an early age I would like to acknowledge my

dissertation chair, Dr. Steve Vandegriff, your wise counsel and guidance has been invaluable to

me and I will forever be grateful. To my committee member, Dr. Rebecca Lunde, thank you for

all your advice and enthusiastic encouragement.

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................3

Dedication .......................................................................................................................................4

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................5

List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................8

List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................9

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................11

Overview ............................................................................................................................11

Background ........................................................................................................................11

Purpose Statement ..............................................................................................................19

Research Questions ............................................................................................................22

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................25

Design ................................................................................................................................56

Research Questions ............................................................................................................58

Participants and Setting......................................................................................................58

Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................66

Procedures ..........................................................................................................................67

Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................68

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS .............................................................................................................71

Overview ............................................................................................................................71

Research Questions ............................................................................................................72

Descriptive Statistics ..........................................................................................................72

Results ................................................................................................................................74

Summary ............................................................................................................................79

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................82

Overview ............................................................................................................................82

Discussion ..........................................................................................................................82

APPENDIX B ..............................................................................................................................111

Table 1: Summary of School Demographics .................................................................................61

Table 2: Summary of Students Not Enrolled in Remedial Classes ...............................................63

Table 3: Summary of Students Enrolled in Remedial Classes ......................................................63

Table 4: Counts and Percentages of High School Graduates and Non-Graduates ........................70

Table 5: Counts and Percentages of Graduates and Non-Graduates Attendance Status ...............71

Table 7: Results of the Fisher’s Exact Test ...................................................................................79

List of Figures

Figure 1. Bioecological Theory………………………………………………………………….27

Figure 2. Percentages of High School Graduates and Non-Graduates ..........................................70

Figure 3. Percentages of High School Graduates and Non-Graduates Attendance .......................71

these remedial classes. When students attend classes on a regular basis the student can gain the

knowledge they need to pass the FSA and form a relationship(s) within that classroom setting.

The factor that may potentially affect the graduation rates for students is their

participation in remedial classes (Wilkins & Bost, 2016). Whether they are in attendance

determines the level of engagement with the learning process; if they are absent from the class

the students’ level of engagement is low. Students who are habitually absent from school tend to

classes. These remedial classes are designed to provide more and explicit practice in the skills

the students did not master on an assessment. In order for the student to practice these skills they

are lacking they must be in the class. The remedial classes in the high school are designed to

reengage these students with the learning process. Creating a culture within these remedial

classes of acceptance and success between the teachers and students will foster a sense of

confidence for the student which ultimately promotes staying in school and graduating from high

have the opportunity to succeed. These students are given the opportunity to learn the skills they

are lacking to better prepare them for scoring a proficient or higher on the state standardized tests

to graduate.

The theory underpinning the issue is from Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human

development. It is called the bioecological theory and it has evolved from its introduction phase

of an ecological model in the 1970s to the present, bioecological one (Rosa & Tudge, 2013).

Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) theory posits that human development occurs as a result of the

consistent influences by the environment within the child’s life. The child’s development is

swayed greatly by the child’s microsystems of the family and the environment around them

(Rosa & Tudge, 2013). The schools must utilize these remedial classes to build a positive rapport

dropping out of school and for improving their school attendance. Fostering positive

relationships between the students and their teachers occurs within the microsystem of

Bronfenbrenner’s theory and this is the most influential layer (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998).

All these factors in the process of a student deciding to drop out of high school are

simultaneously influencing and being influenced by the other factors (Tregaskis, 2015). The

development of the high school student is influenced by one’s environment and peers. The

The bioecological theory by Bronfenbrenner (1979) supports the necessity for requiring

students to be present in remedial courses because it helps to create a consistent and supportive

environment to learn. The schools can recognize these indicators of poor attendance issues and

not scoring a proficient in reading and/or math state assessments as negative influences which

are interwoven together. These factors are affecting one another in a reciprocal manner as

explained in the PPCT model of the bioecological theory. These proximal processes can be

altered by the schools to create positive reciprocal experiences via remedial classes and

improvement in student attendance in school. The schools can address these warning indicators

to dropping out of school for the at-risk students and ultimately improve the students’ ability to

graduate from high school.

entering a four-year institution are requiring remedial classes in reading, writing, or math to be

able to effectively grasp the material presented (Gaertner, 2014; Genao, 2015; Shaw, 2014).

Many students leaving high school are not prepared to enter either a two or four-year higher

education institution (HEI). One out of two remedial students in colleges will not be successful

and of the 20% of four-year college students required to take a remedial class, 42% of those

is indicative of the need for communication between the high schools and the colleges to

dialogue concerning the need for improved remedial classes at the high school level and

curricular alignment between the high schools and colleges (Methvin & Markham, 2015).

Currently, there are more studies available which address the need for remedial classes in the

HEIs and the lower levels of school, but very few at the high school level.

There is a gap in the literature that does not address the effectiveness of remedial classes

at the high school level. What is being identified is that high school students are not being

adequately prepared for post-secondary education but, it does not adequately address whether

these classes are improving high school graduation rates or hindering the rates (Boatman, &

disconnect with the school environment as indicative of students graduating from high school or

dropping out of school (Wilkins & Bost, 2016; Kotok et al., 2016). Students are lured into

dropping out of school due to their inability to master the academic content in the classes

required for graduation; therefore, entering the workforce in low-skilled labor jobs without the

opportunity for advancement due to inadequate education levels (Millenky, 2016; Schwartz, &

Rhodes, 2014; Heckman & LaFontaine, 2010). Student absenteeism due to going to jobs outside

graduation rate.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this quantitative, causal comparative study is to ascertain the effects of

enrollment and attendance in remedial courses and non-remedial classes on high school

graduation rates. The independent variables are pre-determined and cannot be manipulated (Gall,

Gall, and Borg, 2007). The dependent variable is student graduation. The independent variable is

the enrollment in the remedial classes and attendance in the remedial classes. The independent

variable in a causal-comparative research design is the presumed cause and the dependent

variable is the presumed effect (Gall et al., 2007). The independent variable for Research

Question One is enrollment in remedial courses. Remedial courses are defined as additional

show a proficiency score of three or higher out of five points on the state standardized tests in

either of those two subjects (CPALMS, 2013-2017 & Donaldson & Halsey, 2007). The

independent variable for Research Question Two is student attendance. Students displaying poor

attendance, which is being absent 15 days or more, and enrolled in remedial classes or students

not displaying poor attendance enrolled in remedial classes. Student chronic absenteeism reveals

a 68% less likely chance they will graduate from high school (Balfanz, Herzog, & Mac Iver,

th

their cohort they entered with in the ninth grade (Students entering grade nine in the 2014-2015

school year, 2019). The requirements for a standard diploma as noted by the NCLB act of 2001

requires a student to attain a standard high school diploma in their respective state on time with

their cohort (Watson & Brown, 2010). This study is attempting to show a causal comparison

between the students’ attendance in remedial and non-remedial courses to the students’

graduation rates. The sample for this study consists of approximately 00 seniors from four high

schools in a southern state.

Significance of the Study

Nearly one in every five American high school students does not graduate (Zaff et al.,

2016). There is a lack of research on the issue of a student’s participation in remedial classes and

shown remedial classes can give the students the skills they need to pass the required courses to

graduate occur mostly in higher education institutions and elementary through the middle grades

(Levin & Belfield, 2007; Lin, Guo, & Lin, 2016; Tavakolian & Howell, 2012; Vaughn et al.,

2015; Wilkens & Williams, 2015). There is a lack of studies on remedial classes at the high

school level. Students are leaving high school and entering colleges without the skills needed to

successfully complete the courses. Approximately 8% of students assigned to a remedial class in

Genao, 2015; & Shaw, 2014). Remedial classes at the high school level should be preparing

these students to graduate. The significance of this study will be to show if there is relevance in

placing high school students into remedial classes in determining whether it promotes graduation

or not.

The indicator of absenteeism also plays an important role in determining whether a

student completes high school and graduates. In studies by Roberts, Vaughn, Fall, and Vaughn

(2013) and Messacar and Oreopoulos (2013), daily attendance rates were a main focus for

addressing the needs of potential drop out students. Students who miss school, miss valuable

assignments. They become further and further behind, thus creating a cycle in which they do not

understand the material and do not have the skills to teach themselves so, they simply quit trying

to catch up with their peers. This creates the potential for the student to drop out of school and

not graduate.

Students not graduating create a problem for themselves and for society as a whole.

Crime rates are lower and citizens of communities with higher numbers of high school graduates

way to understand and combat the low graduation rates from high school.

Research Questions

RQ1: Is there a difference in the graduation rate of students who are enrolled in remedial

classes and those who are not enrolled in remedial classes?

RQ2: Is there a difference in the graduation rate of students who display poor attendance,

which is defined as 15 or more absences, and are enrolled in remedial classes and those who do

not display poor attendance enrolled in remedial classes?

Definitions

study the settings in which the emerging individual spends their times and the

relationships with other people around them in the same settings (Rosa & Tudge, 2013).

achievement levels and consequences such as leaving school before graduating from high

history of the students’ test scores.

mastery of the skills needed to achieve expected competencies to score a proficient score

of a three or higher on the English language arts and Algebra I state standardized and end

time to achieve expected competencies to score a proficient score of a three or higher on

the English language arts and Algebra I state standardized and end of course assessments

required to graduate from high school (CPALMS, 2013-2017).

Chapter two examines the effects of participation in remedial classes and non-remedial

classes on truant and non-truant high school students’ graduation rates. The reviewed literature is

their effects on high school graduation rates.

Bioecological theory provides a framework for examining how remedial courses at the high

school level can potentially influence students’ ability to achieve the academic requirements in

an ELA and/or mathematics course to graduate. The theory recognizes the value of system

interactions related to the students’ experiences, connections with these systems, and their

environment. Bronfenbrenner first created the ecological theory in the 1970s, later expanded it

active participant or not does not change the fact that they potentially may be affected. These

events affect or are affected by what happens in the setting which contains the developing child

(Onwuegbuzie, 2013). Direct involvement is not necessary to create an interaction between the

developing child and its surroundings. This system shows the relationship between the student,

their surroundings, and their academic performance in the classroom setting. For example, the

developing student feels inadequate in their needed skills in a subject due to working late every

turn creates a failing grade on an assessment to determine if that student has met the criteria to

attend regular courses, and requiring that student to attend remedial courses as a result. This is an

example of the exosystem in which the developing student is affected because of their irrelevant

experiences in which they have not been directly involved.

In this second nested system of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) social-ecological model, the

developing person is enhanced when all people involved are included in joint activities. In this

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological and his more recent amended extension, the bioecological

theory, are viewed as being beneficial in the educational environment with some degree of

supplementation (Drakenberg & Malmgren, 2013). In Bronfenbrenner’s fifth layer in the

amended bioecological theory, the chronosystem, he proposes that the student’s development is

potentially influenced by two events, the timing of an event or an event experienced that is

exclusive to that student’s generation. These events experienced by a student while developing

can positively or negatively affect their achievement. This layer, the chronosystem, is influenced

both by reciprocal experiences between the developing student, the teacher, and between the

developing student and cultural experiences exclusive to that time period. The negative affect

may occur in a high school remedial class when generational cultures may not be understood by

manner they were intended, when this occurs tension can be the result. The tension whether on

the part of the student or teacher creates a hindrance in the success of the mastery of the

curricula’s content. Understanding that this misinterpretation at this level of Bronfenbrenner’s

system may be damaging to the developing student’s ability to successfully attain the necessary

strategies to master the content is key to improving both the remedial classroom settings and the

regular classroom settings. Bronfenbrenner maintains that because the child progresses, the

development of the student may potentially promote graduating from high school with the skills

needed to show mastery of the curriculum’s content.

Social Cognitive Theory

Much of Bronfenbrenner’s theories were based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory.

According to Vélez-Agosto et al., (2017), “Sociocultural theory is based on how culture mediates

human experience and transforms human activity” (p.103). Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory was

created following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and he tried to align it with the

ideology of Marxism, which focused on the tools, history, and labor to explain the learning

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory places culture at the forefront of a child’s development,

emphasizing that culture is apparent in everyday activities because all forms of human activity

are cultural forms of conduct, defined in a specific cultural context, and later embodied by the

person (Vélez-Agosto et al., 2017). This is one of the major differences between

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, the emphasis on

culture within a child’s development. While Vygotsky placed culture as the main influence on a

inseparable in Vygotsky’s theory, whereas Bronfenbrenner views culture and context as a factor

that is not located within the microsystem of the student.

Another major theorist to contributing to the ideas of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological

theory is Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist from Germany who eventually emigrated to the

United States. His beliefs were related to the physical comparison and geographical one (Vélez-

Agosto et al., 2017). Bronfenbrenner believed the principle of contemporaneity states that all

human conduct and development depend solely upon the entire situation at the present time

(Lewin, 1943/1997). This principle would seem to delete the effects of an individual’s past and

future and its effects on their development, instead it was suggesting the researcher view it

through the psychological present lens (Wong, 2011). In this theory, the present situation in its

2011). Bronfenbrenner seems to align his theory a little closer to Lewin’s beliefs by including the

present situation in its entirety when studying how a child’s development.

These three social psychologists created a fundamental foundation for researchers to

reference when conducting research in the field of education. The framework provided by

Vygotsky and Lewin helped to inspire Bronfenbrenner to create his theory. They both provided

key elements which helped guide Bronfenbrenner in creating a theory that he considered an on-

addressed in order to create an environment for optimal learning. These students’ constant

interactions with their environments on a repeated basis in these remedial classes must be

conducive to creating an atmosphere for learning. In Bronfenbrenner’s layers, the microsystem is

the first one, and it is the most influential layer. This layer contains the school, and its

classrooms, for this is where the remedial classes will occur creating a potential for the most

effective exposure to the students. This exposure will occur as proximal process; that is

systematic occurrences of interaction between person and environment (Tudge et al., 2016).

Related Literature

dropouts become involved in criminal activities (Levin & Belfield, 2007; Millenky, 2016; Ou,

2008; Wilkens & Williams, 2015). Consider the cost to incarcerate one person for one year

at $51,000 in contrast to the cost to educate one student per year at approximately $12,000

(Thurlow, Sinclair, Johnson, & National Center on Secondary Education and Transition,

2002). It is evident that society should place a great deal of support and emphasis on helping

students to graduate, whether that entails providing remediation in the ELA and/or mathematics

courses and/or improving their attendance rates. The national high school graduation rate is an

important issue as it directly affects the potential collection of postsecondary education

candidates and the excellence of the nation’s future labor force (Joo & Kim, 2014; Tyler &

Lofstrom, 2009). The percentage of high school graduates in the labor force 25 years and older is

higher than the percentage of 25 years and older high school dropouts in the labor force

(National Center for Education Statistics, 2013). They are not contributing to the tax base for the

economy- instead, they are depleting the economy’s funds. When comparing the high school

graduate to the dropout, the average high school dropout over the course of their lives costs the

economy approximately $260,000 in terms of higher rates of support from Medicaid and

Medicare, less tax contributions, higher rates of criminal activity, and receiving welfare (Levin &

but it also creates a higher negative discrepancy in the annual wages of females over males

(Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009).

Societal Implications of High School Graduation Rates

Producing high school dropouts can also negatively affect the United States

competitiveness in the global economy (Joo & Kim, 2014). This labor force which consists of

high school dropouts is not prepared to compete globally (Tavakolian & Howell, 2012). These

school diploma and higher degrees to be competitive in the United States and globally (Joo & Kim,

2016; Tavakolian & Howell, 2012; Thurlow et al., 2002). Growth in both the quantity and the

quality of the employment force conventionally has been a major source of United States output

development and given the current trends the quantity and the quality are lacking (Heckman &

Masterov, 2007; Ou, 2008). Jobs requiring more types of postsecondary education will grow twice

Labor, 2012). Enabling high school students to acquire the skills needed to score a proficient or

higher on the FSA and EOC is imperative to their future success and society’s economic future

success (Ou, 2008; Tavakolian & Howell, 2012; Wilkens & Williams, 2015).

Earning a high school diploma is vital to succeeding today (Levin & Belfield, 2007;

Messacar & Oreopoulos, 2013; Ou, 2008; Tavakolian & Howell, 2012). Currently, only 76% of

students graduate on time in the United States and the graduation rate is lower in many of the

subgroups (Gaertner, 2014). In the first 70 years of the 20

century in the United States the

percentage of high school graduates rose from 6% to 80% creating a more lucrative economy,

but it began to decline for the following thirty years (Murnane, 2013). The United States has

employees worked in factories and were considered low-skilled as the factories did not require

much education or training to hire them (Schenimann, 2018). The factory workforces of the

United States have greatly been decimated since 1990 and their need for highly skilled factory

laborers has replaced the low wage non-skilled factory worker (Wilkerson & Williams, 2012).

Many of the jobs available to the students throughout the 20

century were agriculture-related

jobs and did not require any type of formal education (Tavakolian & Howell, 2012; Thurlow et

al., 2002). These jobs of the past required little to no education and are being outsourced to

foreign countries and migrant laborers, leaving low-skilled workforce unemployed (Schenimann,

2018).

backgrounds. When statistics include the achievement of the GED as meeting the same criteria

for graduation as the traditional high school diploma does, then an increase is revealed in the

graduation rates and a decrease in the number of high school drop outs (Carneiro & Heckman,

2003; Ou, 2008). This statistic can provide a false positive impression to the public and

ultimately be misconstrued as beneficial but, it is deceptive. In many instances, the equivalent

GED’s criteria is not viewed as being as stringent as the criteria to attain the traditional high

DeLissi, & Roberts, 2014). The atmosphere produced within the context of a classroom is vital to

the success both academically and socially a child can achieve. The atmosphere can encourage

school engagement for the child, or it can produce one in which the children withdraw from the

learning process and the classroom. It reveals how the relationship between the students, their

teachers, and peers can improve their academic abilities (Maynard et al., 2014). In this study by

Maynard (2014), students participated in a remedial course to help them potentially graduate.

The need to improve student engagement within the context of remedial classes is revealed as

essential to the success of students being able to master the curriculum and ultimately graduate

from high school. The bioecological theory provides the framework to better understand the need

to provide an atmosphere of student engagement within the remedial classroom setting to

explains the impact the constant interactions between one another can have on the remedial

students’ ability to master the content.

The microsystem, in these cases is the school environment, is the most influential and has

the most effect on a child’s development (Rosa & Tudge, 2013). Improving the school

environment through engagement in the learning process with success can potentially provide the

most influence on the students’ academic outcomes. The remedial courses are designed to

(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Maynard et. al, 2014).

Viewing this study through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory allows the

researcher the ability to view the students’ proximal processes, which may lead to healthy

developments in more than one context, and they are usually in their normal settings (Rosa &

Tudge, 2014). This is vital to this study as the students’ remedial courses occur in a familiar

setting, at the same school they attend, and the proximal processes will occur over a period.

These courses may provide the consistent interactions between the students and this

environment, which may potentially lead to healthy developments. These healthy developments

may be the skills the students need to master the content to pass the exams and graduate from

high school. They may also be the relationships they build with their instructors or the self-

bioecological theory has informed the literature on education because it helps educators to have a

more comprehensive understanding of child development. A child’s development is not wholly

dependent upon what is in their genes, but what is affecting them in these systems surrounding

them. The environment and the properties of the child in which they are placed should be studied

in relation to the processes taking place within and between them and must be analyzed as

interdependent (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This theory emphasizes the ideology that a child’s

student’s attendance rates. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the No

Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 are federal initiatives which have identified student

absenteeism as a factor which can potentially predict whether students will drop out of school

(Redmond & Hosp, 2008). Identifying excessive student absenteeism early in a student’s

significant improvement in students’ scores in school (Foorman & Moats, 2004; Lovett,

Lacerenza, Palma, & Fritjers, 2012; North & Ryan, 2018). Struggling learners of math in the

elementary grades show a higher degree of engagement and self-motivation than their middle

school peers show in math (North & Ryan, 2018). As students begin to move into the middle and

high school grades, they notice their struggling peers’ weaknesses in the various academic

subjects and form social cliques excluding them from participating (North & Ryan, 2018). The

positively respond to the instruction or withdraw due to peer exclusion or embarrassment. Many

times, these remedial classes may not be effective because the high school students have become

separated from their peers who remain in regular or advanced classes (North & Ryan, 2018). A

disconnection has occurred between the struggling students and regular/advanced students due

the struggling students’ placement and attendance in these remedial classes.

Remedial classes may occur during the regular school hours of the day, but the trend

receive extra instruction after school while other students do not, there can be a disparity in the

quality of the teacher’s instruction where they tend to teach to the students who are at the higher

level of understanding (Huang, 2013). The students at the lower end of the spectrum begin to fall

further behind as a result of the faster paced teacher instruction, creating a snowball effect that

becomes harder to close the gap between the diverse group of learners. The use of after school

tutoring to address students’ weaknesses in an academic subject can promote improvements in

those student’s performance. The other students who have not received the extra support and

instruction by their teacher after school can potentially become stagnated; therefore, falling

behind the after school tutored peers. Many students are seeking to participate in these after

school remedial classes due to examination preparation (Bray & Kwok, 2003; Shaw, 2014).

score showing mastery of the content to graduate (Graduation Requirements for Florida’s

Statewide Assessments, 2018). Some studies conducted throughout the world revealed that

higher performing students were more likely to attend after school tutoring than the lower,

struggling performing students did; consequently, the higher performing students reaped the

benefits at a higher rate of success than the lower performing students (Bray & Kwok, 2003;

Huang, 2013). Remedial classes outside of the regular school day hours may not be as effective

The ongoing debate over whether later intervention strategies are effective in improving

graduation rates for high school students merits much discussion in the education field. As noted

in several studies, early intervention strategies implemented in the elementary grades has proven

beneficial (Garces, Duncan, & Currie, 2002; Heckman & Carneiro, 2003). Many practitioners

believe that the implementation of early interventions reveals improvements in the cognitive and

non-cognitive abilities of students and their motivation; while interventions implemented later in

life do not (Heckman & Carneiro, 2003). In a study in Israel, remediation was provided for high

school students to help prepare for their matriculation exams and the results showed a 3.3% rise

in the matriculation rate of the school (Lavy & Schlosser, 2005). Contrary to some studies, as to

the question of the effectiveness of remedial interventions in secondary schools, the practice can

Wilkins & Bost, 2016; Zaff et al., 2017).

In another study in Chicago, remedial classes were implemented, which consisted of

double the time in Algebra 1 and geometry classes to help the struggling ninth and 10

these mathematics tests and GPA. These students were placed in an extended block of time to

allow the teachers the time they needed to review and reteach those skills needed to improve

implementation (Nomi, 2009). These students were identified and placed in the remedial

program due to their scores, which revealed they were below the 25

The improvements made by students who are placed in remedial settings other than the regular

classrooms are indicators that changing the student’s environment and/or location can be

beneficial (Dai & Huang, 2015). In these studies, the remedial teachers could modify the

curriculum to meet the needs of the individual students (Nomi, 2009; Nomi & Allensworth,

2009; Shaw, 2014). This meant the students built a trust between the teacher, themselves, and

their peers. The classroom environment became a safe place for them to attempt a concept as

many times as needed to master the concept without feeling hesitant due to embarrassment or

shame. It is important to facilitate reciprocal interactions, the items and symbols in the

amplification, and imagination (Bronfenbrenner, 1999). This is significant for my study because

it demonstrates the positive benefits from providing that extra instruction in a different classroom

setting and at a differentiated pace to meet the students’ needs.

The teachers in these studies are promoting reciprocal interactions with the immediate

environment of these students' while creating a curriculum which promotes exploration and

manipulation. The school environment, which is in Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem, the most

2013). This is significant for my study as the remedial classes they are required to participate in

could potentially help them to graduate from high school, setting them on a course of lifetime

success.

In the literature, there are few reported studies on the teacher preparation needed and

whether they received instruction on how to conduct remedial classes and preventative measures

in the secondary schools. Several studies emphasize that identifying the early detection warnings

is crucial to preventing students from dropping out (Garces et al., 2002; Heckman & Carneiro,

2003; Orpinas et al., 2018). These studies identify the early warning signs (EWS) to detect

potential dropouts, but they are lacking in identifying any training for the remedial teachers

literature reveals the statistics for students graduating from high school, GPA of the students, and

school engagement. The strategies needed to better equip these remedial students to master the

content are specific to their methods of learning. This is vital to the efficacy of the data because,

as noted in a study in which teacher led remedial groups showed enhanced learning in

comparison to the student led remedial group, the teacher can potentially create a positive or

negative impact on their students learning (Erinosho, 1990). Whether the curriculum is modified,

In remedial learning students receive instruction in the subject area(s) in which they

showed a lack of mastery of the required content. Remedial instruction chiefly enables students

who did not achieve the instructional objective or who have learning difficulties to learn it again

(Dai & Huang, 2015; Shaw, 2014). As noted in this study by Dai and Huang (2015), remedial

learning is affected not just by the instruction provided to the student but, it includes the location,

the time, and the close teacher involvement. In a study to determine if students improved their

math scores implementing three different delivery formats revealed that the interaction with the

teacher format as opposed to interventions solely instructed by a computer was the most effective

and the student’s improvement in motivation improved (Dai & Huang, 2015). All three of the

formats of intervention, which were computer-based learning, blended learning, and traditional

2015). Much debate has been devoted to the need and effectiveness of implementing remedial

classes early in a child’s educational career, such as, at the elementary level, and that it becomes

less effective at the high school level (Lavy & Schlosser, 2005). The evidence that implementing

a remedial class at the secondary level can show positive outcomes is revealed in a study that

implemented remedial classes only to the targeted students needing the intervention (Lavy &

Schlosser, 2005). These studies implementing interventions to students at a later stage in their

level to prepare them to be able to participate in the regular required courses (Koch, Slate, &

Moore, 2012). The understanding that students who have received a high school diploma are

qualified and prepared to function in freshman courses at the university level is a misnomer

(Cline, Bissell, Hafner, & Katz, 2007). Many of the students identified as low socioeconomic are

having to complete a year’s worth of remedial courses at the collegiate level their first year

(Cline, Bissell, Hafner, & Katz, 2007). This is worrisome to both the secondary schools and the

higher institutions. The dialogue must begin between the high school level and the collegiate

level to better help the high school students be prepared to academically participate successfully

at the collegiate level. The remedial courses being required for the high school students as a

result of not mastering the content in the regular setting may not be enough for preparing these

pass the content for an exam but, they may not be meeting the demands for the next level. High

school remedial courses need to be rigorous enough to prepare these graduates for the next

academic level, college and/or a career.

The results from a study on whether participation in a remedial class impacts high school

graduation rates positively or negatively can further help schools realize their significance or

lack thereof. Through this study of examining the remedial classes, which are in an alternative

shape these students’ academic skills for their future (Orpinas et al., 2018). This study examines

both ELA and mathematics remedial classes to determine if they are effective at improving a

student’s ability to pass the classes and state standardized assessments to graduate from high

school. This is vital to helping secondary students graduate, not become frustrated with their lack

of academic performance, and ultimately drop out of school. Many studies focus on elementary

and middle school aged students. The data supports the need for early interventions as a

preventative measure (Orpinas et al., 2018). There is a very small amount of data in secondary

schools concerning preventative measures for promoting graduation.

The bioecological theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner provides a theoretical framework in

graduation rates. Bronfenbrenner’s theory is marked by two distinct phases, the first one being

the ecological phase and the second being the bioecological phase. They are not independent of

one another, instead they influence and interact with one another on a consistent basis. The

individual is influenced by the environment in a reciprocal manner, and these experiences can

positively or negatively affect their choices. In the studies reviewed, this reciprocal on-going

interaction between the individual and the environment is consistently evident. It is this

these struggling students, not the teachers who are new and may be struggling themselves as

instructors. The students who do not graduate from high school with a traditional four-

year diploma may be facing many hardships in their lives that could have been avoided.

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS

The purpose of this causal-comparative study was to determine the effects on high school

graduation rates of students who are placed in remedial and non-remedial courses and are

identified as having attendance issues only in non-remedial courses. Chapter Three will explore

the research design, research question, hypothesis, participants and setting, instrumentation,

manipulation of the independent variables by this researcher (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). A

quantitative study is appropriate for this study due to the collection data in an organized manner.

It uses statistical and mathematical procedures to aid in interpreting and shaping the data which

addresses remedial class effectiveness and the impact of attendance. It can be defined as research

that clarifies occurrences according to numerical data which are analyzed by processes of

arithmetically based methods, especially statistics (Yilmaz, 2013). The data being examined is

archival data from the previous school year. The data will be objectively examined to develop

explanatory universal laws to explain social phenomena using a statistical format (Yilmaz,

2013).

The seniors will be placed into groups according to participation in a remedial class(es)

or no participation in remedial class(es) for any of the four years of high school. The next group

will be students considered having poor attendance in remedial classes and students in remedial

classes not displaying poor attendance. The data will be examined to determine if a causal-

comparative effect has occurred between either of the two groups previously listed. It is a type of

empirical research into a social phenomenon or problem, testing a theory consisting of variables

predicts phenomena of interest. The prediction of whether remedial classes significantly

affecting or not affecting high school graduation rates, will be examined.

The dependent variable, student graduation, is defined as a student meeting the required

criteria for a standard traditional diploma. The student must attain 24 credits in the following

areas: four English/language arts, four math courses, three science courses, three social studies

credits, eight elective credits, including one physical education, and one online course, passing

th

future criterion, such as an assessment (Boone et al., 2015). In Florida remedial classes are

specifically defined as additional English Language Arts and/or math courses the students are

required to take when they did not show a proficiency score of three or higher out of five points

on the state standardized tests in either of those two subjects. Non-remedial courses are defined

Instrumentation

The data used for this study is archival data obtained for the state by the schools. The

state of Florida requires the schools to maintain accurate records of student’s grades, test scores,

classes students attend, and attendance in each class at every school. Similar archival data has

been used successfully in numerous peer reviewed studies (Caruth & Caruth, 2013; Terry,

Heitner, Miller, and Hollis, 2017; Camargo & Navarro, 2010; Fitzgerald et al., 2013). Many peer

selected (Boone et al., 2015; Bowers, 2013; Fitzgerald et al., 2013). The sample of high school

students will include all students that graduated with their cohort, and those that did not graduate

with their cohort. The data will be recorded and stored in a computer database. Each individual

district within the state has the autonomy to decide and implement which computer program is

best suited to store this information. The computer program used to house this information is not

uniform throughout the state but, it is uniform throughout this district. The data for the students

gatekeeper for this information will be the school district and the researcher will obtain it from

the district office.

The information contained will include each students’ classes taken, the grades for each

class, daily attendance for each class period, and the type of diploma a student received upon

graduation. The researcher will be able to disaggregate the data to determine the remedial class

or classes each student has been enrolled in for grades nine through 12. The attendance for each

student enrolled in a remedial class and the graduation rate for the students. The graduation rate

is whether the student graduated with a traditional diploma or did not graduate. A traditional

diploma is defined as a student meeting the requirements for the state of Florida (Students

entering grade nine in the 2014-2015 school year and forward academic advisement flyer-what

they entered the ninth grade with within a four-year period will be categorized as a non-graduate.

For the dependent variable, the research will look at graduation rates. Graduation rates will be

obtained from each school on both remedial and non-remedial students. For the independent

variables, the researcher will obtain data from each school for the status of individual student’s

four-year academic enrollment; either in regular education ELA and mathematics classes or

remedial classes required for graduation. The next set of independent variables the researcher

Procedures

Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval will be obtained prior to conducting research

(see Appendix X for the IRB approval).

The next step will be to obtain permission from the superintendent to use the four high

school’s data for this study. The researcher will email the superintendent of the school district

explaining the purpose and procedures of the study. The researcher will send the consent form

via email (see appendix X for the consent form).

The researcher will locate the seniors from the 2017-2018 school year in all four schools

located in this county in Florida using the Focus computer program. The researcher will use the

Excel’s RAND function to assign each student with a number to ensure anonymity. The

researcher will identify each student’s high school graduation status. Each student will be coded

in the Excel program as a 1 if they graduated with a traditional diploma, which is defined as

student must attain 24 credits in the following areas: four English/language arts, four math

physical education, and one online course, passing the end of course assessments with a 3 rating

out of 5 for English/Language Arts in the 10

grade and in Algebra I, while maintaining a 2.0

overall grade point average, and graduating with their cohort they entered with in the ninth grade

and were not enrolled in a remedial class(es) at any time during grades nine-12. Each student

who did graduate with a traditional diploma and was enrolled in remedial class(es) at any time

during grades nine-12 will be coded as a 2. Each student that was enrolled in a remedial class(es)

Data Analysis

A chi-square test will be used for this study. According to Gall et al. (2007), “The

statistical technique of the chi-square test is a nonparametric statistical test to determine whether

research data in the form of frequency counts are distributed differently for different samples” (p.

325). To determine the relationship of the variables, the chi-square test of independence will be

used (Laerd, n.d.). There are two assumptions that are required for chi-square. First, is the level

which is graduating with cohort of 2019 or failing to graduate with 2019 cohort. Second, is

grouping which includes graduation status aligned with remedial class or non-remedial class

enrollment (Laerd, n.d.). The first assumption is tenable as the variables are nominal. Students

will be identified as graduate or non-graduate, participation in remedial classes or not, and finally

assumption is tenable due to there being multiple independent groups; (a) graduates that were

enrolled in only non-remedial, (b) non-graduates that were enrolled in only non-remedial, (c)

graduates that took remedial classes, (d) and non-graduates that took remedial courses. Two chi

square tests (tests of independence) will be used to decide if a statistically significant difference

existed between the student’s enrollment in remedial classes or not and students having poor

attendance in remedial classes or not having poor attendance in remedial classes affects the

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

This study examined the potential effects of enrollment in remedial courses on high

school graduation rates (RQ1) and how attendance among students enrolled in remedial courses,

might affect graduation rates (RQ2). Chapter Three described the study’s methodology and

research design. Chapter Three also identified the setting within which the study took place,

data were obtained. Chapter Three concluded with a description and validation of the statistical

methods that were expected to be used in analyzing the data during the planning stages of the

research.

Chapter Four reiterates the research questions that were addressed in the study and states

the null hypotheses that were associated with each of those research questions. This chapter

provides descriptive statistics for the variables that were key to the study’s research questions:

compared the high school graduation rates of students who were enrolled in remedial courses (n

= 74) and students who were not enrolled in remedial courses (n = 593). The study’s second

research question was addressed using Fisher’s exact test and associated statistics (i.e., Cramer’s

V and 95% confidence interval) to compare the graduation rates of remedial students with good

attendance records (n = 63) and those with poor attendance records (n = 11).

Research Questions

The following two research questions were addressed in this study.

RQ1: Is there a difference in the graduation rates of students who are enrolled in

remedial classes and those who are not enrolled in remedial classes?

attendance, which is defined as 15 or more absences, and are enrolled in remedial classes and

those who do not display poor attendance enrolled in remedial classes?

Null Hypotheses

Null hypotheses associated with the study’s research questions were as follows:

H

1: There is no statistically significant difference in the graduation rates of students

who were enrolled in remedial classes and those who were not enrolled in remedial classes.

questions are summarized in this chapter section. Table 4 shows counts and percentages of

students as a function of their remedial enrollment status and graduation status (RQ1) and Figure

2 depicts those data graphically. Table 5 shows counts and percentages of the subgroup of

students who were enrolled in remedial courses as a function of their attendance status and

graduation status (RQ2) and Figure 3 depicts those data graphically. Results of statistical

analyses of the graduation data pertinent to each of the study’s research questions are provided in

the following section.

Figure 2. Percentages of high

school graduates and non-graduates as a function of remedial enrollment status (RQ1; N = 667).

Figure 3. Percentages of high school graduates and non-graduates as a function of attendance

status among students enrolled in remedial courses (RQ2; N = 74).

A chi-square analysis of the cross-tabulation graduation data shown in Table 4 was used

to address RQ1. However, the much smaller sample used in addressing RQ2 resulted in a low

expected frequency in one of the four cells of the 2 x 2 cross-tabulation table shown in Table 5.

This violated one of the assumptions for the chi-square analysis, as explained below, and

Study limitations that affected the internal and external validity of the study will be discussed,

and the chapter will conclude with recommendations for future research.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS

Chapter Five will discuss the results of the statistical analyses. This chapter will explain

the implications these have on the existing body of knowledge on the topic of high school

graduation rates of students enrolled in remedial and non-remedial classes and how attendance

among students enrolled in remedial classes affected high school graduation rates. Chapter Five

The purpose of this archival, causal comparative research study was to determine the

effects of whether enrollment in remedial classes or non-remedial classes significantly affect

high school graduation rates and students displaying poor attendance in remedial classes and

students not displaying poor attendance in remedial classes affecting high school graduation

rates. The dependent variable, student graduation for both Research Question One and Research

th

in the ninth grade (Florida’s high school cohort 2016-2017 graduation report, 2018). The

independent variable for Research Question One is enrollment in remedial class(es). Remedial

classes are defined as courses the students attend to assist in improving literacy skills and or

mathematics skills to prepare them to show aptitude on a future criterion (Boone et al., 2015).

Non-remedial courses are defined as students who passed the state standardized assessments and

do not take extra remedial courses (CPALMS, 2013-2017 & Donaldson & Halsey, 2007). For

Research Question Two, the independent variable is poor attendance while enrolled in remedial

classes.

Research Question One

Research Question One asked is there a difference in the students’ high school graduation

this study, of the 593 students who were enrolled in non-remedial classes exhibited a 98.1%

graduation rate in comparison to the 74 who were enrolled in remedial classes displayed a

graduation rate of 14.9%. The classroom atmosphere sets the stage for the remedial class(es) and

how they should be instructed and constructed. In several studies the atmosphere within the

classroom and the strong relationships formed can either encourage school engagement for the

student, or it can produce one in which they may withdraw from the learning process and

occur on a regular and constant basis in order to create a change in the students’ behaviors and

attitudes toward the new experience and be able to transfer the skills to other areas

(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In prior studies, it was identified that the ongoing reciprocity of

experiences occurring in the remedial settings created success for the students in staying engaged

in the learning process, improved test scores, and graduation from high school (Nomi, 2009;

Nomi & Allensworth, 2009; Zaff et al., 2017; Maynard et al., 2014). This study’s results were

contradictory, the 74 remedial students were unable to transfer the remedial strategies to other

areas and subjects therefore, the graduation rate was a low 14.9%.

In these previous studies, it revealed implementing remedial classes in the earlier stages

such as the elementary age is more effective in improving students’ skills in mathematics and

(Foorman & Moats, 2004; Lavy & Schlosser, 2005; Lovett, Lacerenza, Palma, & Fritjers, 2012;

North & Ryan, 2018). One reason for this easier acquisition of needed academic skills at an

earlier age is due to the absence of peer pressure. This study supports this idea, the 74 students

who attended a remedial class(es) for acquisition of the needed academic skill(s) to help them

graduate may have been embarrassed because they were being isolated and singled out in front

of their peers while decreasing these students’ graduation rates. While the 593 non-remedial

identifies the value of constant interrelated system interactions related to the students’

encounters, connections with these systems, and their engagement with the learning processes

through the varied methods within the remedial learning environment. As noted in multiple

studies which placed the lowest performing high school students in both Algebra I and/or an

ELA classes remedial classes for an extended period of time, a significant improvement was

shown in the students’ reading and Algebra I scores significantly (Nomi, 2009; Nomi &

Allensworth, 2009). Although this student’s findings contradict the results of those studies, it

identifies the need to improve the remedial classes’ format or delivery of the content to better

meet those individual student’s needs and help increase the high school graduation rates.

Concerning when remedial instruction is implemented can have an impact on the success

viable solution due to a lack of money to pay an extra teacher for remedial instruction during the

regular school day (Hilgoe, Hattingh, & Bernhardt, 2016). According to these studies, the results

are showing a disparity in favor of the students who have higher academic abilities and are

attending remedial classes per their choice in comparison with those who are lacking the skills

and are required to attend the remedial instruction (Bray & Kwok, 2003; Huang, 2013). After

school tutoring may interfere with the student’s ability to attend after school extracurricular

graduate.

Research Question Two

The purpose of research question two of this quantitative, causal-comparative study is to

determine if there is a significant difference in the graduation rates of students who displayed

poor attendance in the enrolled remedial classes and those who did not display poor attendance

enrolled in remedial classes. The study’s second research question examined high school

graduation data from only the 74 students in the 2019 graduation cohort who had been enrolled

in remedial courses. This analysis compared the graduation rates of remedial students with poor

attendance records (“truants,” n = 11) and remedial students with better attendance records

(“non-truants,” n = 63). There was no significant difference found between the graduation rates

remedial students who were classified as truants (n = 11; 18.2% graduation rate). The difference

between truant and non-truant graduation rates seen in this sample (18.2% - 14.3%) was 3.9%,

marginally favoring truant students.

As noted in these preceding studies, one factor in determining if a student will potentially

drop out of high school is chronic absenteeism (Bowers et al., 2012, Redmond & Hosp, 2008). A

study using retroactive or archival data revealed that all students, regardless of their

this ideology as the students classified as non-truant had only a 14.3% graduation rate compared

to the truant students’ rate of 18.2%. The students in this study who were absent more often had

a higher graduation rate than the remedial students who were present in the classroom on a more

consistent basis.

Research question two of this study, revealed that the students with an attendance

problem had a higher graduation rate than the students with no attendance issues enrolled in

remedial classes. This is in stark contrast with these earlier studies which demonstrate that

student absenteeism is an early indicator of students dropping out of high school and not

graduating (Bowers et al., 2012, Redmond & Hosp, 2008). Another proponent for identifying

chronic absenteeism as an indicator of a student not graduating from high school are the federal

1965. This study does not support these previous notions concerning absenteeism being an

indicator of students dropping out of high school and not graduating. However, this study reveals

that the students who were identified as missing 15 or more days (truant) had a higher graduation

rate than the students who were not identified as truant.

Implications

having to provide public assistance for them; they have more health problems, and a large

number of dropouts become involved in criminal activities (Levin & Belfield, 2007; Millenky,

2016; Ou, 2008; Wilkens & Williams, 2015). This study implements remedial classes for the

potential drop outs, but it lacks consistency in the methods and delivery of the instruction. The

results from this study will help K-12 schools create more informed policies concerning the

implementation of remedial classes to aid students in graduating from high school.

Using Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development to frame this study, helped to be

able to consistently focuses on the individual student being viewed as influencing and being

influenced by the environment on a constant basis (Rosa & Tudge, 2013). In this study, the 74

students who were enrolled in the remedial class(es) at some point during the four years of high

consistent group of teachers in the varied remedial courses, whereas the regular classes may

possess a more comfortable environment, one in which the students are familiar with these

regular required class(es) and the teachers are familiar to the students. Students are given

information concerning the required class(es) needed to graduate from high school as soon as

they arrive as freshmen but may not receive information concerning attendance in remediation

class(es) due to their inability to demonstrate a score of proficient on a required assessment for

the most influential layer, the microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The results of this study can

help secondary schools review the methods in which their own school’s remedial class(es) are

delivered and choose the most effective remedial environments needed for their individual

school’s students to improve the students’ graduation rates.

Research shows that many practitioners believe that the implementation of early

interventions reveals improvements in the cognitive and non-cognitive abilities of students and

their motivation; while interventions implemented later in life do not (Heckman & Carneiro,

2003). In another study in Israel, the results of remedial classes administered to high school

students, implementation later in the student’s school career, wielded results that were minimal

at best (Lavy & Schlosser, 2005). These previous studies and this study show similar results,

rates. In this study, the 74 high school age students may not have possessed the motivation to try