12International IDEA
Direct Democracy
Conservative bias
Some scholars have argued that referendums and citizens’ initiatives
disproportionately favour conservative policies over progressive ones. Non-elite
citizens are typically less educated and less cosmopolitan than elites, and may
maintain more traditional or even reactionary values: transferring decision-
making from (relatively elite) politicians to ordinary citizens can therefore hinder
progressive reforms. Moreover, in a referendum campaign, the ‘no’ side,
favouring the status quo, typically has a structural advantage over those who are
advocating change (the ‘yes’side is usually seen as having the burden of proof).
Evidence for the regressive tendency of direct democracy is, however, disputed, as
popular majorities have in many cases embraced progressive change at the ballot
box.
Authoritarian and populist abuse
Historically, authoritarian rulers such as Napoleon in France, Franco in Spain,
Pinochet in Chile, Marcos in the Philippines and Park Chung Hee in South
Korea have used uncompetitive referendums to create a false veneer of democratic
legitimacy. Referendums may also enable populist leaders to bypass legislative,
judicial or constitutional restraints on their power by appealing to the masses.
Referendums have been used in this way to justify a so-called self-coup, to
marginalize domestic political opposition or to overturn constitutional
prohibitions on re-election. Sometimes, however, the authoritarian abuse of
referendums can backfire. In 1988, for example, Pinochet unexpectedly lost a
referendum to extend his term of office, and his regime collapsed shortly
thereafter.
Cost and logistics
Holding a poll is expensive. It can place considerable logistical burdens on
electoral management bodies, local authorities, security services and other state
agencies. It also demands a lot in terms of civic education and engagement from
political parties and campaign groups. In developing countries, where resources
are scarce, and where voting may be prone to violence, frequent reliance on direct
democracy may be impracticable.
Social conflict and minority rights
Referendums and initiatives, particularly with a simple-majority adoption
requirement, may deepen divisions in society, threaten the rights of minorities
and increase racial, ethnic, linguistic or religious tensions. In 2012, for example,
Latvia held a citizens’ initiative to amend the constitution to recognize the
linguistic rights of the country’s Russian-speaking minority. The campaign
further increased tensions between the Latvian-speaking and Russian-speaking